SUPERFICIAL MEASURES

In the Abrahamic age 180 _se_ were probably equivalent to 1 _gin_, 60 _gin_ to one _sar_ or “garden,” 1,800 _sar_ to 1 feddân (_padânu_) or “acre.” The latter was called _bur-gan_ in Sumerian, or “10 acres,” to distinguish it from a smaller acre, which contained only 180 _sar_.

Time was reckoned by the _kasbu_ or “double hour,” and in early times the weight was divided into three watches of 2 _kasbus_ or 4 hours each. The months were originally lunar, and consisted of 30 days, an intercalary month being inserted in the calendar every six years. The zodiac was divided into 360 degrees.

Mathematics were based upon a sexagesimal system, sixty, called the _soss_, being the unit. The _ner_ was equivalent to 10 _sosses_ and the _sar_ to 6 _ners_.

Adoption, by the Sun-god, 36; its prevalence in Babylon, 37; concerning slaves, 38 ff.; a way to citizenship, 41

Ainsworth, on coast-line formation, 2

Allat, goddess of under-world, 242; in temples, 247

Amen, used in hymns, 245

Amorites, the, women, 18, 191; colonies, 187 ff.; position of, 189; freedom of worship, 191-193; country, 220

Apprentices, case of slaves, 71

Arad-Samas, position of his two wives, 27

Aramaic, taught in schools, 56

Architecture, features of Babylonian, 9, 10; use of bricks, 90, 137; character of, 91; plans of houses, 92; foundations, 92; decorations, 93, 94; dwellings of poor, 95; stair-cases, 95

Army. _See under_ “State”

Artists, position of, 166

Ashtoreth. _See_ Istar

Assur, worship of, 256

Assyrians, compared with Babylonians, 8; in regard to women, 18; slave law among, 78; slave contract, 79, 80; features of architecture, 93; gardens of, 95; land, 123; contracts, 124; land measurements, 125; money interest, 156; coinage, 157; medicine, 164; military character of government, 172; taxes, 175; army, 181; navy, 183; letters, 217; religion, 255

Astrology, 60; letters relating to, 219

Baal worship, 233-234

Babylonia, its importance and situation, 1; the increase of land, 2; and its culture, 6; various nationalities, 7; Chaldean associations, _ibid._; Kassite influence, 7, 8; the inhabitants, 9; trade, _ibid._, 107; architecture, 9; writing, 10; mode of burial, 10, 11; cosmogony, 11; fertility, 11, 12; features of family life, 13 ff.; dowry and divorce, 20 ff.; polygamy, 27; matrimony, 29; inheritance, 31; adoption, 36 ff.; citizenship, 41; names, 45 ff.; literature, 52-54; burial, 62-66; slavery, 67 ff.; labourers, 82 ff., 148; manners and customs, 90 ff.; manufactures, 107 ff.; house property, 118-120; land, 120 ff.; money-lending, 157 ff.; bankers, 151; barristers, 161; government, 168 ff.; army, 177 ff.; law, 95 ff.; letter-writing, 208 ff.; religion, 231 ff.

Balawât, description of shrine at, 247

Bankers, firms of, 127; and money-lending, 151 ff.

Barbers, position of, 105

Beating the bounds, custom of, 121

Bedâwin, as shepherds, 82; wages of, 86

Beer-houses, 113

Bel, “The Illumination of Bel,” 60

Bel-Katsir, a plea set aside, 28; his adoption, 37

Bel-Merodach and sonship, 36, 168, 169; hymns and prayers, 260

Berachiel, his action for adoption, 38, 39

Berossus, origin of Babylon, 1

Bethels in shrines, 248

Bitumen, use of, 90; prices of, 147

“Black Stone” of Mecca, 248

Borsippa, University at, 54; “The Epic of the Creation,” 55

Branding in the sole, 44

Brick-makers, importance of, 137, 138

Burial, method of Babylonian, 10, 62 ff.; place of, 62; cemeteries, 62; rites of, 63; tombs, 64

Canaanitish Women, legal status, 19

Cape of Good Hope, 45

Carchemish, importance of, 156; maneh of, 159

Carpenters, 134

Cemeteries, 62

Chaldea, the origin of, 7

Chariots for army, 178

Circumcision, 47

Clay-tablets, use of, 51

Colonies of Amorites, 187

Concubines, allowed, 25; purchaseable, 26

Cosmetics, wide use of, 105

Cosmological beliefs, 243

Cremation, practised, 62

Cuneiform writing, 49; use of clay, 50, 209; chapters, 52; origin, 209

Custom-house, place of, 111

Customs: manner of building, 90 ff.; furniture, 96 ff.; dress, 99 ff.; the cylinder, 102; beards, 104, 105; cosmetics, 105

Cylinder, worn on arm, 102; designs on, 103; patterns of, 103

Death, belief about, 242

Divorce, among Babylonians, 20-25; position of divorced wives, 28; instances, 196, 197

Doctors. _See under_ “Medicine”

Dowry and divorce, 19 ff.; penalties, 26; reasons of divorce, _ibid._

Dress, many varieties of, 99; priest’s, 101; poor person’s, 101; women’s, 102; seal cylinder, 102

Duty, on sheep, 111; levy of, 113

Ea, the god of Eridu, 3, 260; founder of law, 195; the spirit, 232; the temple of, 236; Semitic influence, 237

Ebers Papyrus on medicine, 163

Eclipses mentioned, 219

Education: a curious procedure, 44; naming, _ibid._; schooling, 47 ff.; bodily exercises, 48; cuneiform writing, 47; writing materials, 50, 51; books, 52; kinds of literature, 52; school buildings, 54; class education, 55; dead languages taught, 56; philology, 57; history, 58; other studies, 59

Egibi, the banker, 127, 152

Egyptian influence on religion, 233

El-lil, the god of Nippur, 3

Eridu, a seaport of primitive Chaldea, 2; a great centre, 3, 4; its god, 3; its origin, 4; its temple, 236

Exorcisms, form of, 260

Family life among Semites, 13; equality of sexes, 14

Farmers, tenure, 84, 85

Fasts and feasts prescribed, 246

Footstool, 96

Furniture, scanty but artistic, 96

Gardens, largely used, 94, 127

Gem-cutting, art of, 103

Gods and goddesses, relation of king to, 169 ff.

Grain, varying prices of, 142, 145; as exchange, 144; store-house, 206

Gudea, priest-king of Lagas, 90; works of, 93, 94; a vase of, 97; dress, 102; deification of, 169

Guilds for traders, 141

Hades, belief about, 242

Herodotus, quoted on Babylonian fertility, 11; on prostitution, 30

History, the favourite study, 58

Hit, bitumen procured from, 90

“House of Cereals,” the, 206

House-property, value of, 114; lease of, 115; payment for, 116; a lawsuit, 118-120

Hymns, Sumerian origin, 244; Amen, 245; hymns and prayers to Bel, 260

Ideograph, or picture-writing, 236

Inheritance, laws of, 31; private ownership, 32; testaments, _ibid._; the will of Sennacherib, 35; the theory of adoption, 36; disputes, 42

Iron, general use of, 136

Irrigation, necessity of, 88

Istar, the goddess, significant changes, 13, 14; the priestesses of, 16, 17; land of temple of, 126; independence of, 239; as Ashtoreth, 240; story of, _ibid._; prophetesses of, 252; the Istar of witchcraft, 259

Ivory, large trade in, 136

Jews, position of, in Babylonia, 68; colonists, 190

Judges, appointment of, 197; trials before, 199

Juries, existence of, 198

Kassites, their dynasty, 7; effect of conquest in Babylonia, 171

Khalutê, battle of, 53

Khunnatu, 72

Khammurabi, letters of, 210 ff.

Ki-makh, or cemetery, 62

King. _See under_ “State”

Labourers, classes of, 82; farmers, 84; wages, 85, 86, 148-150; songs of, 87

Land, value of, 120 ff.; rent of, 121; in Assyria, 123 ff.

Law, the study of, 59; early origin, 195; judges, 197; case of foreigners, 198; trials, 199; careful procedure, 201; punishments, 205; bail, 206; prisons, _ibid._

Layard, his discovery of a lens, 51

Letter-writing no modern invention, 208; material used, 209; cuneiform writing and its advantages, 210; early examples, 211 ff.; Assyrian, 216 ff.; private letters, 225; sealing, 228; noticeable features, 229, 230

Literature, place of, 52; poetry, 165

Maneh. _See_ “money-lending”

Marriage ceremonies among Babylonians, 29; among Israelites, 30; permitted degrees, 31

Medicine, early use, 162; Egyptian influence, 163; court physicians, 164; in Assyria, 164; doctors’ letters, 218

Metals, use of, 131; where found, 132; method of working, 132; copper, 133; prices for, 147

Money-lending, a lucrative profession, 151; a coin currency, 152; repayments, 153; rate of interest, 153, 154; securities, 155; Assyrian interest, 156; standard of coins, 158; fixed values, 160

Monotheism in hymns, 262

Moon-god, temple of, 2; cult of, 257; hymn to, 261

Murasu, the firm of, 161

Music and its cultivation, 166

Naming a child, 44; and a god, 45; reasons for changes, 46

Nebo-akhi-iddin, contract of, 75

Nebuchadnezzar’s army, 181

Nergal, the Lord of the Dead, 65

Nidinti, case of the slave in, 70

Nineveh, letters in library at, 216

Nippur, excavations at, 3; its god, _ibid._; its origin, 4; the temple, 236

Nublâ, a law case, 15; her slave, 71; apprenticing a slave, 141

Oannes. _See_ “Ea”

Oracles, in writing, 48

Palms, high prices, 127

Paradise, origin of, 95

Partnerships, frequent, 127; with women, 128; form of deeds of, 128, 129; terms of, 129

Peters, Dr., quoted, 66

Philology cultivated, 57, 58

Phœnicians, 183

Physical exercises, 48, 52

Pilasters, use of, 91

Poets, position of, 165

Polygamy, among Babylonians, restricted, 27; but possible, 27, 28

Porcelain, trade in, 137

Portents, the study of, 59, 60

Postal system established, 104; extensive use, 228

Priest, dress of, 101; classes of, 249; eunuch-priests, 250; marriage, 252

Prisons, 206

Professions: bankers, 151; barristers, 161; doctors, 162; poets, 165; musicians, 165, 166; artists, 166

Property, a legal point relating to, 23; a woman’s power, _ibid._; disputes, 42; temple prop, 255

Prostitution in Babylonia, 30, 252

Punishments, legal. _See_ “Law”

Qubtâ, and her slave, 70

Quddâ, and his slave, 70

Rab-mugi, or court-physician, 164

Rab-saris, office of, 176

Rab-shakeh, or vizier, knowledge of language, 57; office of, 176

Religion, letters relating to, 223; popular superstition, 231, 257; twofold influence in official creed, _ibid._; Sumerian and Semitic conceptions compared, 232; Shamanism, 235; ideograph, 236; the centres and their influence, 236, 237; Semitic influence, 237 ff.; Istar, 239; Tammuz, 240; the origin of things, 241; various beliefs, 242; Hades, 242; cosmological, 243; sacred books, 244; hymns, 244, 260; numerous services, 245; temples, 246; sacrifices, 248; hierarchy, 249; temple revenues, 253, 255; witchcraft, 259; exorcisms, 260; monotheism, 263

Rimanni-Bel, a slave’s adoption cancelled, 40

Sabbath, origin of word, 245; customs, _ibid._

Sacred books, 244

Sacrifices, various kinds, 248

Sandals used, 100, 101

Sargon, his empire, 5, 6; a tradition of, 83; houses in time of, 92; dress, 101; survey of land, 122; carpenters’ trade under, 134

Satraps, or governors, 176

Schools, 47 ff.; buildings, 54; dead languages taught, 56; subjects of study, 56 ff.

Scribes, the position of, 161

Semites, connection with Sumerians, 4 ff.; influence on religion, 231, 237; Semitic conception of deity, 233; the goddess, 238

Sennacherib’s will, 35; garden, 94, 95

Shamanism of the Sumerians, 235

Sheep, largely kept, 109; a contract, 111; duty, _ibid._; market, 112

Shekel, 158

Ships, character of, 185

Sippara, situation of, 113; letters found at, 214

Slaves, position of, 67, 68; classes of, 68; price of, 69, 70, 75; law regarding, 69; apprentices, 71; privileges, 71; restrictions, 74; emancipation of, 77, 78; in Assyria, 78, 79

Songs of peasants, 87, 88

Spelling, correctness of, 230

State: theocratic character, 168; relation of sovereign to God, 169-171; the Western Empire, 171, 172; contrasts in Assyria, 172; aristocracy, 173, 174; taxes, 175; officials, 176-177; divisions of army, 177-182; chariots, 178; developments, 180; Assyrian army, _q.v._; under Nebuchadnezzar, 181; navy, 183; merchant boats, 184; character of ships, 185; Amorite colonies, 187; immunities, 194

Stables, letters relating to, 222

Stars, worship of, 62

Stela of the Vultures, 105

Stone used for decoration, 93

Stone-cutters, perfect work of, 135

Streets, character of, 112, 113

Stucco, largely used, 92

Sumerians, race influence, 4; influence on Semites, _ibid._; marriage law, 25; marriage ceremony, 29; dictionaries, 50; language taught, 56; law for slaves, 69, 81, 82; text-book on farming, 84; beardless, 104; law as to barbers, 105; weights, 158; deification of Sumerian kings, 170; code of law, 195; influence on religion, 231; Sumerian conception of a god, 232; no moral nature, 234; Shamanism, 235; Tammuz, 240; hymns, 244

Sun, belief about, 242

Superstition, popular, 231, 257

Surveyors, importance of, 123

Tables, fashion of, 97

Tablets of Tel-el-Amarna, 7; the use of clay, 10

Talent, 158

Tammuz, worship of, 240, 251

Tapestries, 107

Taxes, nature of, 175; immunity from, 194

Tel-el-Amarna tablets, quoted, 7, 19; ladies’ letters, 48, 215; other letters, 209; points of letter-writing, 229

Temples, construction of, 246; temple ministers, 251; revenues of, 253

Tiglath-pileser, his gardens, 94

Tithes paid, 253

Tombs. _See_ “Burial”

Trades, 107 ff.; woollen, 108; partnerships, 127; carpenters, 135; stonecutters, 135; iron-smith, 136; ivory carvers, 136; porcelain-makers, 137; brick-makers, 137; vintners, 139

Tsarpî, an Assyrian prefectess, 18

Tylos, island of, 108

Ubaru, contract of, 85

Under-world, belief in an, 64

Ur of the Chaldees, foundation of the town, 2; its moon-god, 2; its connection with Nippur, 3; a custom with daughters, 14; comparative prices, 147, 148; hymn used at, 261

Ustanni, an interesting contract, 73

Vases, plentiful and various, 97

Weights. _See_ Appendix

Will, an example of a, 32; an heiress, 34; the document of Sennacherib, 35; disputes, 42

Wine, manufacture of, 139, 140; letters relating to, 221

Women: family, legal and religious status in Babylonia, 14 ff.; in Assyria, 18; in Canaan, 19; divorce, 20; dowries, 20; traders, 24; a superior slave, _ibid._; concubines, 26; testatory rights, 29; legal forms of matrimony, 29; prostitutes, 30; adoption, 37; dress, 102; as trade partners, 128

Wool, manufacture of, 107 ff.; looms, 108

Writing materials, 50, 51. _See also_ “Letter-writing”

Yahveh, name known in Babylonia, 227

1 Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea (1838), p. 131 _sqq._

2 In certain cases the wife seems to have had the power of claiming alimony from her husband, though we do not know what were the circumstances which were held sufficient to justify the claim. Thus, in the third year of Nabonidos, “Nahid-Merodach, the son of Samas-baladhu-iqbi, voluntarily granted his wife Ramûa and his son Arad-Bunene four _qas_ of food and three _qas_ of beer daily, as well as fifteen manehs of wool, one _pi_ of sesame, one _pi_ of salt, and sixty _qas_ of sweetmeats each year,” with the provision that the grant should never be cancelled or willed away. The son, however, is included in the gift, and it is possible, therefore, that Ramûa was little more than a concubine.

3 A similar case, in which, however, it is a testatrix who hands over her property to her son during her lifetime, is recorded in a deed dated at Babylon the 10th day of Sivân, in the second year of Nabonidos. The deed is as follows: “Gugûa, the daughter of Zakir, the son of a native of Isin, has voluntarily sealed and delivered to her eldest son, Ea-zir-ibni, her dowry, consisting of one maneh which is in the keeping of Nebo-akhi-iddin, the son of Sula, the son of Egibi; 35 shekels which have been mortgaged to Tabnea, the son of Nebo-yusallim, the son of Sin-sadunu, and 20 shekels which are due from Tasmetum-ramat, the daughter of Arad-Bel, the son of Egibi, as well as a field producing 48 _qas_ of seed on the canal of Kish. As regards the maneh and 56 shekels belonging to Gugûa, which, in the absence of her eldest son, Ea-zir-ibni, she has divided between her younger sons, Nebo-akhi-bullidh, Nergal-ina-esi-edher, Itti-Samas-baladhu, and Ninip-pir-_utsur_, Ea-zir-ibni shall have no claim to them. Gugûa has delivered to Ea-zir-ibni, her eldest son, one maneh, now in the hands of Nebo-akhi-iddin, 55 shekels in the hands of Tabnea, 50 shekels in the hands of Tasmetum-ramat, and a field bearing 48 _qas_ of seed. As long as Gugûa lives, Ea-zir-ibni shall give his mother Gugûa, as interest upon the property, food and clothing. Gugûa shall alienate none of it out of affection or will it away. Ea-zir-ibni shall not be disturbed in his possession.” The names of three witnesses are attached to the deed, which was “sealed in the presence of Babâ, the daughter of Nebo-zir-lisir, the son of Egibi.”

4 Journal of the American Oriental Society, xviii., p. 167.

5 We hear, however, of a “little girl of six years of age” being sold for 17 shekels in the thirteenth year of Nabonidos, but she was doubtless an orphan.

6 Xxiii. 14.

7 See above, p. 23 f.

8 Schliemann, Ilios, pp. 471, 472. Mr. Head shows that the maneh in question is identical with the Babylonian silver maneh of 8,656 grains troy, or 561 grammes, though the latter is now more usually fixed at 546 grammes.

9 In the Assyrian texts the term for “prison” is _bit kili_, of which _kisukku_ is also given as a synonym.

10 Our learned author has been misled in this paragraph by the utterly erroneous copy and translation of Father Scheil. The letter reads “To Sin-iddinnam from Hammurabi. The goddesses of Emutbalim which are assigned to thee, the troops under the command of Tnuhsamar will bring to thee in safety. When they reach thee, with the troops which thou hast destroy the people, and the goddesses to their dwellings let them bring in safety.”—CR.