SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND STRENGTH OF MALT EXTRACT

["----------+------------- Specific | Per Cent. Gravity. |Malt Extract. ----------+------------- 1·000 | 0·000 1·001 | 0·250 1·002 | 0·500 1·003 | 0·750 1·004 | 1·000 1·005 | 1·250 1·006 | 1·500 1·007 | 1·750 1·008 | 2·000 1·009 | 2·250 1·010 | 2·500 1·011 | 2·750 1·012 | 3·000 1·013 | 3·250 1·014 | 3·500 1·015 | 3·750 1·016 | 4·000 1·017 | 4·250 1·018 | 4·500 1·019 | 4·750 1·020 | 5·000 1·021 | 5·250 1·022 | 5·500 1·023 | 5·750 1·024 | 6·000 1·025 | 6·244 1·026 | 6·488 1·027 | 6·731 1·028 | 6·975 1·029 | 7·219 1·030 | 7·463 1·031 | 7·706 1·032 | 7·950 1·033 | 8·195 1·034 | 8·438 1·035 | 8·681 1·036 | 8·925 1·037 | 9·170 1·038 | 9·413 1·039 | 9·657 1·040 | 9·901 1·041 | 10·142 1·042 | 10·381 1·043 | 10·619 1·044 | 10·857 1·045 | 11·095 1·046 | 11·333 1·047 | 11·595 1·048 | 11·809 1·049 | 12·047 1·050 | 12·285 1·051 | 12·523 1·052 | 12·761 1·053 | 13·000 1·054 | 13·238 1·055 | 13·476 1·056 | 13·714 1·057 | 13·952 1·058 | 14·190 1·059 | 14·428 1·060 | 14·666 1·061 | 14·904 1·062 | 15·139 1·063 | 15·371 1·064 | 15·604 1·065 | 15·837 1·066 | 16·070 1·067 | 16·302 1·068 | 16·534 1·069 | 16·767 1·070 | 17·000 ----------+-------------", "The sugar contained in beer is best determined by by taking 50 c.c. of the sample, adding 10 c.c. of plumbic basic acetate solution, and making the volume of the mixture up to 300 c.c. with distilled water. After standing for some time the solution is passed through a dry filter. It is then examined by cautiously adding it from a burette to 10 c.c. of Fehling’s solution (diluted with 40 c.c. of distilled water and brought to the boiling-point), until the blue colour of the latter disappears (see p. 111). It should be borne in mind that, while 10 c.c. of Fehling’s solution are reduced by 0·05 gramme of glucose, it requires 0·075 gramme of maltose to effect the same reduction.", "In order to estimate the dextrine, 10 c.c. of the beer are reduced by evaporation to about 4 c.c., and heated with 1 c.c. of dilute sulphuric acid to 110° by means of an oil-bath in a strong hermetically closed glass tube for five hours. At the completion of this operation the solution is neutralised with sodium hydroxide, diluted, and the total glucose determined by Fehling’s reagent, as just described. The glucose due to the conversion of the dextrine is found by deducting the amount of maltose (expressed in terms of glucose) previously obtained from the total glucose; 10 parts of glucose represent 9 parts of dextrine.", "The organic acids (acetic and lactic) are estimated as follows:--(_a_) _Acetic acid_, by distilling 100 c.c. of the sample almost to dryness, and titrating the distillate with decinormal soda solution; (_b_) _Lactic acid_, by dissolving the residue remaining after the distillation in water, and either determining its acidity by decinormal soda, or by treating the residue with water and a little sulphuric acid, adding barium carbonate to the mixture, heating in the water-bath and filtering, the precipitate being thoroughly washed with hot water. The filtrate is then concentrated to a syrup by evaporation, and agitated in a test-tube with a mixture of 1 part each of sulphuric acid, alcohol, and water, and 10 parts of ether. After standing at rest for some time, the ethereal solution is separated by means of a pipette and evaporated to dryness in a tared capsule. The residue (impure lactic acid) can be weighed, or it is dissolved in water, the solution treated with zinc carbonate, and the lactic acid determined as zinc lactate, which contains 54·5 per cent. of the anhydrous acid.", "Phosphoric acid may be estimated in the beer directly by first expelling the carbonic acid, then adding a small quantity of potassium acetate, heating, and titrating with a standard solution of uranium acetate, using potassium ferrocyanide as the indicator. It can also be determined gravimetrically in the ash.", "The estimation of the ash is made by evaporating 100 c.c. of the sample in a weighed platinum dish to dryness, and incinerating the residue at a rather moderate heat, so as to avoid volatilisation of the chlorides. The amount of ash in normal beer should never exceed 0·5 per cent., the usual proportion being about 0·3 per cent.; this would naturally be increased by the addition of sodium bicarbonate or sodium chloride to the beer. The complete analysis of the ash is seldom necessary, but it is often of importance to estimate the amount of sodium chloride contained. This is effected by dissolving the ash-residue in distilled water and precipitating the chlorine from an aliquot portion of the solution by silver nitrate; one part of the precipitate obtained represents 0·409 part of common salt. The proportion of sodium chloride in pure beer is very inconsiderable, but it may be added to the beverage either to improve the flavour or to create thirst. For the determination of phosphoric acid, a weighed portion of the ash is dissolved in nitric acid, the solution evaporated to dryness, and the residue boiled with water containing a little nitric acid. It is then filtered, concentrated by evaporation, an excess of ammonium molybdate solution added, and the mixture set aside for about ten hours, after which the precipitate formed is separated by filtration and dissolved in ammonium hydroxide. A solution of magnesium sulphate (mixed with a considerable quantity of ammonium chloride) is now added, and the precipitated ammonio-magnesium phosphate collected, washed, ignited, and weighed, 100 parts of this precipitate contain 64 parts of phosphoric anhydride (P_{2}O_{5}).", "The positive detection of the presence of artificial substitutes for malt in beer is a matter of considerable difficulty. According to Haarstick, a large proportion of commercial glucose contains a substance termed _amylin_, which exerts a strong dextro-rotary effect upon polarised light, but is not destroyed by fermentation, and upon these facts is based a process for the identification of starch-sugar in beer. It is executed by evaporating 1 litre of the sample to the consistency of a syrup and separating the dextrine present by the gradual addition of 95 per cent. alcohol.[77] After standing at rest for several hours the liquid is filtered, the greater portion of the alcohol removed from the filtrate by distillation, and the residual fluid evaporated to dryness over the water-bath. The solid residue is then diluted to about a litre, yeast added, and the sugar present decomposed by allowing fermentation to take place for three or four days, at a temperature of 20°. It was found that, under these conditions, pure beer afforded a solution which was optically inactive when examined by the polariscope, while beer prepared from artificial glucose gave a solution possessing decided dextro-rotary power. The use of rice and glucose in the manufacture of beer is also indicated when there is a deficiency in the proportion of phosphoric acid in the ash, and of the extract, which applies, although to a somewhat less extent, if wheat or corn meal has been substituted for barley malt.", "The following conclusions were reached by a commission of chemists appointed in Germany to determine standards for beer:--A fixed relation between the quantity of alcohol and extract in beer does not invariably exist. As a rule in Bavarian and lager beer, for 1 part by weight of alcohol a maximum of 2 parts and a minimum of 1·5 parts of extract should be present. In case malt has been replaced by glucose, or other non-nitrogenous substances, the percentage of nitrogen in the extract will fall below 0·65. The acidity should not exceed 3 c.c. of normal alkali solution for 100 c.c. of beer. The ash should not exceed 0·3 per cent. The maximum proportion of glycerine should not exceed 0·25 per cent. For clarification, the following means are permissible: Filtration, the use of shavings, etc., and of isinglass or other forms of gelatine; for preservation, carbonic acid gas, and salicylic acid may be employed--the latter, however, only in beer which is intended for exportation to countries where its use is not prohibited.", "Several samples of so-called “beer preservatives” examined by the author, consisted of a solution of sodium salicylate and borax, dissolved in glycerine. Salicylic acid is employed in order to prevent fermentation in beer, which is exposed to great variations in temperature. Its presence is detected by the following process, suggested by Röse,[78] which is equally applicable to wine:--The beer (or wine) is acidulated with sulphuric acid, and well shaken with its own volume of a mixture of equal parts of ether and petroleum naphtha. After standing at rest, the ethereal layer is removed by a pipette, and evaporated or distilled until reduced to a few c.c. A little water and a few drops of a dilute ferric chloride solution are then added, and the liquid filtered: in presence of salicylic acid, the filtrate will exhibit a violet colour. In the case of wines, where the presence of tannic acid might interfere with the salicylic acid reaction, the filtrate is re-acidulated, then diluted, and the treatment with the ether mixture and iron chloride repeated. The second residue will now show the violet coloration, even in wines rich in tannin, and containing but 0·2 milligramme of salicylic acid per litre. The tannin can also be removed by precipitation with gelatine, and the colour test for salicylic acid subsequently applied. Glycerine is likewise sometimes used as a preservative of beer, and is also added to render the liquor richer in appearance, by communicating a viscosity to the froth which causes it to adhere longer to the sides of the glass. It can be quantitatively estimated by evaporating 100 c.c. of the sample in a capsule at a temperature of 75°, until the carbonic acid has been expelled, then adding about 5 grammes of magnesium hydroxide, and thoroughly stirring the mixture until it forms a homogeneous, semifluid mass. The contents of the dish are allowed to cool, and are then well digested with 50 c.c. of absolute alcohol, and the fluid portion afterwards separa", "It is certain that many of the poisonous substances which in former times have been detected in beer, such as strychnine, hyoscyamine, picric acid, and picrotoxine, are not used at present. It is much more probable that such bitters as gentian and quassia may be met with, especially at times when hops are dear. These latter far exceed hops in bitterness, and do not exert deleterious effects upon health. Willow bark, or its active principle, salicine, has also been employed. The detection of some of the most apocryphal substitutes for hops is effected, according to Wiltstein,[80] by the following method: One litre of the beer is concentrated over the water-bath to a syrupy liquor, which is introduced into a rather capacious tared cylinder and weighed. The gum, dextrine, and mineral salts are first separated by adding to the syrup five times its weight of 95 per cent. alcohol, with which it is thoroughly mixed, and allowed to digest for twenty-four hours. The clear, supernatant solution is now drawn off, and the residue treated with a fresh quantity of alcohol, which is afterwards united with the solution first obtained, the whole being then evaporated until the alcohol is expelled. A small portion of the residue is dissolved in a little water, and tested for picric acid, as described later on. The remainder is repeatedly shaken with about six times its weight of pure benzol, which is subsequently removed by decantation, the operation being then repeated with fresh benzol, the two solutions added and evaporated to dryness at a very moderate temperature. The residue thus obtained is divided into three portions, which are placed in small porcelain dishes and tested as follows:--", "To one portion a little nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·330) is added; if a red coloration ensues, _brucine_ is present; if a violet colour, _colchicine_. A second portion is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid; the production of a red colour indicates the presence of _colocynthine_. To a third portion, a few fragments of potassium dichromate and a little sulphuric acid are added; if a purple-violet coloration takes place, _strychnine_ is present.", "The portion of the syrup which has remained undissolved by benzol is first dried over the water-bath, and then agitated with pure amylic alcohol, by which treatment picrotoxine and aloes, if present, will go in solution, and impart a bitter taste to the liquid.", "The solution can be examined as subsequently directed for picrotoxine; the presence of aloes is best recognised by the characteristic saffron-like odour possessed by this body. The syrup which remains after the successive treatments with benzol and amylic alcohol is next freed from any remaining traces of the latter compound by means of blotting-paper, and then thoroughly agitated with anhydrous ether, which is afterwards removed and allowed to spontaneously evaporate. If the residue now obtained exhibits a wormwood-like aroma, and gives a reddish yellow solution, which rapidly changes to a deep blue when treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, _absinthine_ is present. The syrup insoluble in ether may still contain quassine, gentipicrine, and menyanthine, and the presence of any of these bodies is indicated if it possesses a bitter taste, since the bitter principle of hops would have been removed by the foregoing treatment with solvents. The syrup is dissolved in a little warm water, the solution filtered and divided into two portions. To one a concentrated ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate is added, and the mixture heated: if it remains clear, quassine is probably present; the formation of a metallic mirror points to the presence of either gentipicrine or menyanthine. A second portion of the aqueous solution is cautiously evaporated in a small porcelain capsule, and a few drops of strong sulphuric acid are added to the residue: if no change takes place in the cold, but upon applying heat a carmine-red coloration appears, _gentipicrine_ is present; if a yellowish brown colour, which afterwards changes to a violet, is produced, the presence of _menyanthine_ is probable.[81]", "Picric acid can be detected by means of the following tests:--", "1. Upon shaking pure beer with animal charcoal, it becomes decolorised, whereas beer containing picric acid retains a lemon-yellow colour after this treatment.", "2. The bitter taste of normal beer is removed by treatment with a little plumbic diacetate and filtering, which is not the case with the flavour imparted by the use of picric acid.", "3. Unbleached wool or pure flannel will acquire a decided yellow colour if boiled for a short time in beer adulterated with picric acid, and afterwards washed.", "4. Upon agitating 20 c.c. of the suspected beer in a test-tube with 10 c.c. of amylic alcohol, allowing the mixture to remain at rest, and then removing the amylic alcohol, a solution is obtained which contains any picric acid present in the sample treated. It is evaporated to dryness, the residue dissolved in a little warm distilled water, and the aqueous solution submitted to the following tests:--", "(_a_) To one portion a concentrated solution of potassium cyanide is added; in presence of picric acid, a blood-red colour is produced, due to the formation of iso-purpuric acid.", "(_b_) A second portion is treated with a solution of cupric-ammonium sulphate; if picric acid be present, minute greenish crystals of cupric-ammonium picrate will be formed.", "(_c_) To a third portion, a little ammonium sulphide, containing free ammonium hydroxide, is added; in presence of picric acid, picramic acid is produced, the formation of which is accelerated by the application of heat, and is made evident by the appearance of an intensely red colour.", "The detection of _cocculus indicus_, or its poisonous alkaloid, _picrotoxine_, may be effected by first agitating the beer with plumbic acetate, filtering, removing the lead from the filtrate by means of sulphuretted hydrogen, and again filtering. The filtrate is first boiled, then carefully evaporated until it possesses a thickish consistency, when it is shaken up with animal charcoal, which is afterwards brought upon a filter, washed with a very little cold water, and dried at 100°. The picrotoxine possibly present is then extracted from the animal charcoal by boiling it with strong alcohol, from which the alkaloid separates on evaporating the solution, either in quadrilateral prisms or in feathery tufts.", "Again reverting to beer adulteration, Prof. H. B. Cornwall has lately made an interesting report in this regard.[82] Several years ago, in reply to a circular issued by the “Business Men’s Moderation Society of New York City,” the “Association of United Lager Beer Brewers” asserted that the only substitutes for barley malt employed were corn starch, corn meal, rice, glucose, and grape sugar, no artificial bitters being used. The addition of glucose and grape sugar, the association stated, was not necessarily on account of economy, but had for its object an increase in the strength of the wort, without resorting to concentration and the production of beer of desirable flavour and colour. Rüdlinger[83] denies that beer is subjected to injurious adulteration in Germany. He states substantially as follows: “Cases of sickness, frequently claimed to be caused by the beer, are due either to excess or to the consumption of the new and incompletely fermented beverage. It has been affirmed that brewers often economise in hops by the use of other and deleterious bitters, and that picric acid and strychnine have been employed for this purpose. Nonsense, once written, is frequently copied by hundreds, and in this way circulates among the masses. The maximum amount of hops used in beer is really inconsiderable, and, there exists no necessity for resorting to foreign substitutes, even in seasons when the price of hops is abnormally high, since the proportion of this ingredient could be slightly decreased without incurring the danger of detection which would follow the use of artificial bitters.” On the other hand, it is certain that, _in past years_, such injurious additions as cocculus indicus, picric acid, aloes, etc., have actually been discovered by chemists of high standing in bitter ale and other forms of beer. A. Schmidt,[84] asserts that glycerine, alum, and sodium bicarbonate are added to beer, and states that beer, poor in extractive and alcoholic constituents, is liable", "1. Genuine beer should be made from grain and hops.", "2. No other substances should replace these, either wholly or partially.", "3. All substitutes should be considered as adulterations, and should come under the penalty of the law, even if not deleterious to health.", "The German Brewers’ Association, at its Frankfort meeting, defined wholesome beer as the produce of malt, hops, yeast, and water with a partial substitution of the malt by starch meal, rice, maize, and glucose, and regarded the use of some malt substitutes as permissible on scientific and hygienic grounds. It recommended, however, that, in case such substitutes are employed, the beer so prepared should be designated by a distinctive name, such as “rice beer,” “sugar beer,” etc.", "The darker varieties of beer are sometimes artificially coloured by the addition of caramel, and, although the result reached is virtually the same as that caused by the over-roasting of malt, the practice is prohibited in Germany unless the product is designated as “coloured beer.”[85] According to Guyot, some of the Bavarian beer sold in Paris is coloured with methyl orange.[86] Licorice is employed in beer brewing in Germany, both on account of its sweetening power and for clarifying purposes.", "In regard to the use of artificial preservatives, such as salicylic acid and sodium bisulphite, it is very probable that articles of food which have been treated with these preparations are not readily digested. Their use, moreover, should be unnecessary, if due care has been exercised in the manufacture of the beer. This is especially applicable to beer intended for home consumption.", "FOOTNOTES:", "[69] The total production of all kinds of malt liquors in the United States was, for the fiscal year 1886, 20 millions of barrels; it is assumed that at least three-quarters of this amount consisted of lager beer.", "[70] In Bavaria the use of all malt and hop substitutes is legally prohibited.", "[71] ‘Report of the National Academy of Sciences,’ 1883, p. 88.", "[72] Hanemann has made the following determinations of fermented worts prepared from pure malt and from malts containing 40 per cent. of each substitute:--", "---------+------------+--------------+------------+--------------+ | Pure Malt. | Maize Malt. | Rice Malt. | Starch Malt. | ---------+------------+--------------+------------+--------------+ Alcohol | 2·71 | 2·76 | 2·90 | 3·19 | Extract | 6·59 | 6·48 | 6·25 | 5·91 | Proteids | 0·43 | 0·39 | 0·33 | 0·28 | ---------+------------+--------------+------------+--------------+", "[73] The writer is assured by a prominent New York brewer, that the addition of sodium bicarbonate is resorted to, not so much as a remedy for poor beer, as for the purpose of satisfying the vitiated taste of the public, who demand a lively and sparkling beverage. The proportion employed is claimed not to exceed one ounce to the keg of beer.", "[74] ‘Annual Report Brooklyn Board of Health,’ 1885, p. 89.--The accuracy of this statement is denied by the brewers. A blending of new and old beer is, however, occasionally practised with, it is said, no deleterious effects.", "[75] Ibid.", "[76] The albuminoids in beer may be estimated by diluting 1 c.c. of the sample with water and then submitting it to Wanklyn’s process for water analysis (see p. 211). The albuminoid ammonia thus obtained, multiplied by 5·2, give the proteids in the beer taken.", "[77] The dextrine can also be removed by subjecting the beer to dialysis (see p. 183).", "[78] Chem. Centralb., 1886, p. 412.", "[79] Griessmayer; Corresp. Blatt. d. Ver. Anal. Chem. No. 4, Feb. 1880.", "[80] Griessmayer; Corresp. Blatt. d. Ver. Anal. Chem. No. 4, Feb. 1880.", "[81] A comprehensive scheme for the detection of foreign bitters in beer, suggested by Dragendorff, will be found in the Archiv. der Pharm. [3] iii. 295; iv. 389.", "[82] Reports of Am. Health Assoc., vol. x.", "[83] ‘Bierbrauerei,’ 1876.", "[84] Archiv. der Pharm., xii. 392.", "[85] Deutsch. Reichsanzeiger, July 31, 1885.", "[86] Répert. de Pharm., xii. p. 513.", "Wine is the fermented juice of the grape of _Vitis vinifera_. In its preparation, the fully matured grapes are usually (but not always) first separated from the stalks, and then crushed, the _marc_ so obtained being afterwards placed in butts provided with perforated sides, through which the expressed juice or _must_ percolates. It is next introduced into vats, and allowed to undergo a process of fermentation, which is very analogous to that of beer wort. The addition of yeast is, however, in this case unnecessary, as the fermentation of grape-juice is spontaneous, it being due to the generation of the fungus _Penicillium glaucum_, which is the product of the action of atmospheric germs upon the albuminoid matters contained in the must. The most important constituents of grape-juice are glucose (10 to 30 per cent.), organic acids (0·3 to 1·5 per cent.), and albuminous substances. During the fermentation the glucose is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid, the latter being evolved in bubbles; a deposit of potassium bitartrate and yeast-cells, forming the _lees_, likewise occurring. This first fermentation ceases after the lapse of several days, the period being indicated by the cessation of escaping gas. In order to prevent the oxidation of the alcohol to acetic acid, the liquid is removed from the lees and transferred into casks, in which a slow after-fermentation and a further separation of potassium bitartrate take place. The wine is subsequently stored for a considerable time in fresh casks, during which it “ages,” and acquires its characteristic flavour.", "The more common varieties of wine are classified according to the country of their production--into French (claret, burgundy, champagne, etc.), German (Rhine), Spanish (sherry and port), and Italian.", "The production of American wine has experienced a noteworthy increase during the past twenty-five years. While, in 1860, less than two millions of gallons of native wine were consumed in the United States, in the year 1884 the quantity used exceeded seventeen millions of gallons.[87] Aside from the general distinction of red and white, wines are classified by their characteristic properties, as dry, sweet, and cordial. In dry wines, such as those of the Gironde and Rhenish districts, considerable free acid, and but little or no sugar are contained, whereas in sweet wines (Madeira, port, etc.) a certain proportion of the sugar remains undecomposed. Cordial wines are distinguished by their sweetness and comparatively heavy body. The nature of wines is materially affected by the proportion of glucose and acids contained in the original must, as well as by the environments of their manufacture, such as climate and temperature. From a chemical point of view, the most important constituents of wine are the primary products of fermentation--alcohol, succinic acid, and glycerine, but its market value is far more dependent upon the flavour and bouquet, which are chiefly due to the formation of secondary products, usually included under the name “oenanthic ether,” and consisting of the ethers of caproic, caprylic, and other organic acids.", "The following table exhibits the constituents of some of the best known varieties of wine, according to results obtained by different authorities:--", "-----------------+---------------------------------------------------- |Specific Gravity. | +-------------------------------------------- | |Alcohol, by Weight. | | +------------------------------------- | | |Fixed Acids (as Tartaric). | | | +----------------------------- | | | |Volatile Acids (as Acetic). Kind of Wine. | | | | +---------------------- | | | | |Total Acids. | | | | | +--------------- | | | | | | Real | | | | | |Tartaric Acid. | | | | | | +-------- | | | | | | | Total | | | | | | |Residue. -----------------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------- | | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. French (red)[88] |0·9950 |12·00 |0·420 |0·170 |0·590 |0·180 | 2·43 French (white) |0·9922 |10·84 |0·435 |0·169 |0·604 |0·102 | 1·257 Vin Ordinaire | .. | 6·99 |0·610 |0·110 |0·720 | .. | 5·04 St. Julien (1858)| .. | 9·84 |0·510 |0·140 |0·650 | .. | 2·67 Frousac | .. |10·74 |0·450 |0·270 |0·720 | .. | 2·36 Champagne | .. | 7·95 | .. | .. |0·520 | .. |12·41 Rhenish[88] |0·9934 | 9·26 |0·420 |0·110 |0·530 |0·250 | 1·850 Rüdesheimer | .. |13·32 | .. | .. |0·630 | .. | 1·840 Alsatian[88] | .. |10·38 | .. |0·6100 | .. | .. | .. Würtemberg | .. | 7·09 |0·87 | .. | .. | .. | 2·22 Sherry[88] |0·9940 |17·20 |0·270 |0·150 |0·420 |0·018 | 4·20 Port[88] |1·0040 |18·56 |0·310 |0·080 |0·390 |0·022 | 7·55 Madeira[88] |0·9940 |17·75 |0·330 |0·160 |0·490 |0·03 | 4·35 Marsala[88] |0·9960 |16·71 |0·190 |0·110 |0·300 | .. | 4·98 Red Vœslauer | .. |10·25 |0·480 |0·060 |0·540 | .. | 1·96 Lachryma Christi | .. | 9·70 |0·460 |0·110 |0·560", "-----------------+--------+----------------------------------------- | Sugar. | Ash. |Potassa (KOH). | | | +-------------------------- | | | |Potassium Carbonate. | | | | +------------------ | | | | | Sulphates | | | | |and Chlorides. | | | | | +---------- | | | | | |Phosphoric | | | | | | Acid. -----------------+--------+-------+------+-------+-------+---------- | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. French (red)[88] | 0·200 | 0·220 | .. | 0·060 | 0·10 | 0·03 French (white) | 0·880 | 0·197 | .. | .. | .. | 0·031 Vin Ordinaire | 0·110 | 0·450 | 0·13 | .. | .. | .. St. Julien (1858)| 0·250 | 0·400 | .. | .. | .. | 0·080 Frousac | 0·370 | 0·270 | .. | .. | .. | 0·040 Champagne | 10·63 | 0·25 | .. | .. | .. | 0·050 Rhenish[88] | 0·012 | 0·170 | .. | 0·07 | 0·07 | 0·03 Rüdesheimer | 0·017 | 0·170 | .. | 0·07 | .. | .. Alsatian[88] | .. | 0·178 | .. | .. | .. | 0·0253 Würtemberg | .. | 0·230 | 0·09 | .. | .. | .. Sherry[88] | 2·56 | 0·450 | .. | 0·001 | 0·36 | 0·02 Port[88] | 4·33 | 0·280 | .. | 0·05 | 0·130 | 0·03 Madeira[88] | 2·08 | 0·39 | .. | 0·03 | 0·25 | 0·04 Marsala[88] | 3·24 | 0·22 | .. | 0·02 | 0·15 | 0·02 Red Vœslauer | 0·29 | 0·32 | 0·14 | .. | .. | .. Lachryma Christi | 18·91 | 0·48 | 0·10 | .. | .. | .. White Capri | 0·48 | 0·29 | 0·11 | .. | .. | .. Cyprus | 22·12 | 0·53 | 0·11 | .. | .. | .. Greek[88] | 0·36 | 0·37 | .. | 0·02 | 0·24 | 0·04 Hungarian[88] | 0·06 | 0·17 | .. | 0·01 | 0·08 | 0·02 -----------------+--------+-------+------+-------+-------+----------", "Two varieties of Californian wine, examined by J. L. de Fremery,[89] had the following composition:--", "-------------------------------+------------------+------------------- Grammes in 100 c.c. | Gutedel (White). | Zinfandel (Red). -------------------------------+------------------+------------------- Alcohol | 10·45 | 9·80 Extract | 2·0908 | 2·1270 Mineral matter | 0·1978 | 0·2218 Volatile acids (as acetic) | 0·0804 | 0·0972 Fixed acids (as tartaric) | 0·4845 | 0·4110 Potassium bitartrate | 0·1579 | 0·1428 Free tartaric acid | 0·0060 | .. Other free acids (as tartaric) | 0·5850 | 0·5325 Sulphuric acid | 0·0384 | 0·0168 Phosphoric acid | 0·0220 | 0·0193 Chlorine | 0·0036 | 0·0054 Lime | 0·0056 | 0·0084 Magnesia | 0·0170 | 0·0160 Glycerine | 0·6133 | 0·5647 Sugar | 0·0165 | 0·0276 Polarisation | +0·2 | .. Succinic acid | 0·0068 | 0·0097 Malic acid | 0·0324 | 0·0922 -------------------------------+------------------+-------------------", "According to analyses made by R. Fresenius and R. Borgmann,[90] natural wine has the following _average_ composition:--", "Grammes in 100 c.c. Alcohol 7·71 Extract 2·75 Free acids 0·73 Mineral matter 0·23 Glycerine 0·79 Sulphuric acid 0·038 Phosphoric acid 0·040 Lime 0·018 Magnesia 0·018 Potassa 0·092 Chlorine 0·004 Potassium bitartrate 0·200", "Natural wines are frequently subjected to various processes of treatment, designed to remedy certain defects existing in the original must. While these do not, perhaps, all properly come under the head of adulteration, it is certain that many of the practices resorted to affect the dietetic quality of the wine in a deleterious manner. The most common modes of treatment, generally considered harmless, are the following:--", "_Pasteuring_, which consists essentially in heating the wine to 60°, with a limited supply of air, and effects the artificial ageing and better conservation of the product. Wines which exhibit ropiness and other diseases are restored by destroying the fungi present. This is accomplished by subjecting the well-filled and corked bottles to a temperature of from 45° to 100° for several hours.", "A process of freezing is likewise employed for the improvement of wine. It results in the removal of much of the cream of tartar, colouring matter, and nitrogenous substances contained, and also causes an increase in the alcoholic strength of the wine, thereby considerably decreasing its tendency to undergo an after-fermentation.", "The proportions of sugar and acid best adapted to the production of wine of good quality are at least 20 per cent. of the former to not more than 0·5 per cent. of the latter. As these conditions do not always obtain in grape-juice, artificial methods are employed to supply the necessary constituents. Of these, the most rational consists in diluting the must until the amount of acid is reduced to 0·5 per cent., and increasing the sugar to a proportion of 20 per cent. by the addition of glucose. In a somewhat similar process, due to Petiot, the marc is repeatedly mixed with water containing 20 per cent. of sugar, and then subjected to fermentation. In other methods, the removal of the excess of free acid is effected by neutralisation with pulverised marble or neutral potassium tartrate. The use of these agents results in the formation and subsequent separation of insoluble salts--in the latter case, of potassium bitartrate. Another process for the improvement and preservation of natural wine, proposed by Scheele, consists in the addition of glycerine, in a maximum proportion of 3 per cent., after the first fermentation has taken place.", "R. Kayser[91] has made a very exhaustive investigation of wine-must of different sources, and of the wine prepared therefrom, both in its natural state and after having been subjected to various “processes of improvement.” The following table shows the results obtained from the analysis of Franken must and wine (both natural and “improved”), made from Riessling grapes in 1880:--", "-------------------+-------+------------------------------------------ | Must. |Natural Wine. | | +----------------------------------- | | |Gall’s Process, (Cane Sugar added). | | | +--------------------------- | | | |Gall’s Process, | | | |(Grape Sugar used). | | | | +-------------------- | | | | |Chaptal’s | | | | |Process (Calcium | | | | |Carbonate added). | | | | | +--------------- | | | | | |Plastered. | | | | | | +-------- | | | | | | |Petiot’s | | | | | | |Process | | | | | | |(Cane | | | | | | |Sugar | | | | | | |added to | | | | | | |grape | | | | | | |husks). | | | | | | +-+ | | | | | | | +-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------ | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. | p.c. Alcohol | .. |6·60 |12·20 |9·10 |6·60 |6·70 |10·40 Extract |17·87 |2·53 | 2·11 |5·91 |2·19 |2·80 | 1·98 Ash | 0·33 |0·26 | 0·10 |0·17 |0·28 |0·29 | 0·16 Sulphuric acid | 0·010 |0·006 | 0·002 |0·010 |0·006 |0·077 | 0·002 Phosphoric acid | 0·031 |0·024 | 0·020 |0·021 |0·023 |0·025 | 0·017 Lime | 0·012 |0·009 | 0·007 |0·018 |0·027 |0·039 | 0·006 Magnesia | 0·012 |0·011 | 0·012 |0·009 |0·012 |0·012 | 0·008 Free acid (as | | | | | | | tartaric) | 1·365 |1·275 | 0·765 |0·802 |0·660 |1·297 | 0·488 Total tartaric acid| 0·501 |0·342 | 0·120 |0·140 |0·014 |0·260 | 0·150 Free tartaric acid | 0·188 |0·012 | .. | .. | .. |0·160 | .. Mali", "Magnier de la Source[92] has recently made some investigations concerning the difference in chemical composition of natural and plastered wine; he gives the following constituents of 1 litre of wine:--", "--------------------------------------+--------+------------ |Natural.| Plastered. +--------+------------ | gr. | gr. Tartar | 1·94 | 0 Sulphuric acid | 2·58 | 3·10 Potassium | 1·12 | 2·46 Calcium (in soluble portion of ash) | 0 | 0·037 Calcium (in insoluble portion of ash) | 0·179 | 0·151 --------------------------------------+--------+------------", "_Adulteration of Wine._--Although there may be some question in regard to the moral status of the foregoing methods of improvement of natural wine, numerous other practices are resorted to concerning which no doubt can exist. The more common forms of wine adulteration include plastering, sulphuring, fortification, blending, flavouring, colouring, and the manufacture of fictitious imitations.", "The “plastering” of wines consists in the addition of plaster of Paris (often mixed with lime), either to the unpressed grapes or to the must. The process, which is rather hypothetically claimed to aid in the preservation of the wine and correct any excessive acidity, is very objectionable, in that it determines the formation of free sulphuric acid and acid sulphates, as well as of calcium tartrate and potassium sulphate. The lime salt, being insoluble, is deposited with the lees; the potassium sulphate, however, remains in solution, and as it exerts a decided purgative effect, its presence in wine cannot fail to be detrimental. In France, the sale of wine containing over 0·2 per cent. of potassium sulphate is prohibited. The plastering of wine is chiefly carried on in Spain, Portugal, and southern France. The ash of pure wine does not exceed 0·3 per cent., but in the samples of sherry usually met with it reaches a proportion of 0·5 per cent., and is almost entirely composed of sulphates. The “sulphuring” of wines is also extensively practised. It is effected either by burning sulphur in the casks or by conducting sulphurous acid through the wine itself, the object sought being to preserve the product and impart to it the ripeness naturally acquired by age. Sulphured wines, while not necessarily showing an increase in the amount of ash, can often be recognised by the abnormally large proportion of sulphates present.", "The strength and preservative qualities of wine are frequently augmented by the addition to it of inferior sorts of brandy. Port wine usually receives an addition of about 30 per cent., and sherry is invariably fortified, if not to so great an extent. By the Customs regulations in England, 10 per cent. of brandy is allowed to be added to wines in bond, while, in France, the sophistication is equally permitted in wines intended for export, provided the total amount of alcohol in the fortified article does not exceed 21 per cent.", "Doubtless the mixing or blending of wines constitutes the most frequent form of their sophistication. Natural wines of the same manufacture vary to some extent from year to year in colour, flavour, and other characteristic properties, and mixing is resorted to in order to supply the trade with a product always possessing nearly identical qualities. In many cases, the flavour of wines is improved by blending, and their intoxicating effects are also increased, both results being due to the formation of compound ethers. Common instances of wine mixing are the addition of Hermitage and Rousillon wines to clarets; of Malaga and Teneriffe to port; of _solaras_ (a mixture of Amontillado and Manzanilla) to sherry; and of a liqueur composed of sugar, some kind of full, rich wine, and brandy, to champagne. The flavour and bouquet of expensive wines are frequently imparted to inferior grades by the addition of various substances, among which are elderflowers, orris root, cherry water, essential oil of almonds, sweet briar, and numerous perfumes, such as orange-flower water, neroli, _essence de petit grain_, violet petals, etc. The tincture of raisin seeds is said to communicate a genuine port flavour to poor wines, and a grain of ambergris, triturated with a little sugar, is stated to impart a much esteemed bouquet to a hogshead of claret. Numerous tinctures, as those of strawberry root, raspberries, and walnuts, are likewise used. Sweet and liqueur wines are extensively imitated at Cette and Montpelier. The following recipes[93] will serve to illustrate the general character of the mixtures employed:--", "_For Lachryma Christi_:-- Bagnols (dry) 85 litres. Gum kino 50 grammes. Infusion of walnuts 1 litre. Syrup of raisins 6 litres. Alcohol (85°) 8 „", "_For Madeira_:-- Picardan (dry) 60 litres. Tavel (old and strong) 25 „ Infusion of walnuts 2 „ Infusion of bitter almonds 2 „ Rock candy 1½ kilos. Brandy (58°) 10 litres.", "_For Malaga_:-- Bagnols (old) 80 litres. Syrup of raisins 10 „ Infusion of walnuts 2 „ Alcohol (85°) 8 „", "_For Tokay_:-- Bagnols 80 litres. Syrup of raisins 10 „ Dried elder flowers 300 grammes. Infusion of white raspberries 2 kilos. „ „ walnuts 1 kilo. Alcohol 6 litres.", "Port is frequently flavoured with a mixture of elderberry juice, grape juice, brown sugar, and crude brandy known as “_Jerupiga_.” Sherry often consists of Cape wine mixed with honey, bitter almonds, and brandy. Astringency is conveyed to wines, deficient in this quality, by means of tannin; and the property of forming a crust on the interior of the bottle is produced, especially in port, by the admixture of cream of tartar and gum. “Dryness” is also obtained by artificial methods. A preparation met with in the trade, and used for this purpose, has the following composition:[94]--", "Per cent. Glucose 28·72 Glycerine 38·40 Tannin 4·10 Dextrine 3·14 Boracic acid 4·27 Cream of tartar trace Moisture and ash 21·37 ------ 100·00 ------", "The colour of white wines is caused by the oxidation of the tannin present, but it is sometimes increased by the addition of the concentrated juice of highly-coloured grapes, or by means of a small proportion of caramel. The colour of natural red wine is due to the presence of _oenocyanin_, a bluish-black compound, chiefly contained in the grape skins, which is insoluble in water, but dissolves in acidulated alcohol. In Spain and southern France, a wine prepared from a vine known as the _Teinturier_, and possessing an intense bluish-red colour, is extensively employed for colouring of wines. There appears to be no doubt but that elderberries, black cherries, mulberries, and hollyhock are also frequently used as colouring agents. Souberian[95] mentions a mixture, termed _liqueur de fismes_, composed of elderberries, but also containing about 5 per cent. of alum, which is occasionally employed. The general use of several deleterious dyes, such as logwood, cochineal, and the aniline colours, is far more problematical. In regard to the last-mentioned agents, it has, however, been asserted,[96] that in a commune near Beziers, of 1800 inhabitants, magenta, to the value of 30,000 francs, is annually consumed in the adulteration of wine.", "It is also worthy of remark that an aniline preparation used in Spain for the artificial colouring of wine has recently been found to contain 1·62 per cent. of arsenic acid.[97]", "Owing to the ravages of the phylloxera, a very considerable decrease in the source of natural wines has taken place during the past few years. Between 1883 and 1884 no less than 22 thousand acres of vineyards were entirely destroyed in the Gironde district alone, and it is stated, upon good authority, that the total production of wines in France in 1884 was 220 millions of gallons less than the average of the previous ten years.[98] There is no doubt but that this decrease has greatly stimulated the manufacture of imitation wines. These occasionally contain a certain proportion of genuine wine as the basis, but more frequently they consist entirely of factitious constituents. The following recipe furnishes a fair example of those of the first class:--", "Rousillon wine 50 litres. Water 85 „ Common brandy 20 „ Vinegar 1 „ Tartaric acid 300 grammes. Powdered orris 20 „ Wood charcoal 500 „", "Agitate thoroughly, add the white of two eggs, with constant stirring; allow to settle, and draw off.", "Of late years, the production of wine from dried fruit has assumed very extensive proportions in France. The product, which is generally known as “_vin de raisins secs_,” is claimed by its manufacturers to be wholesome.[99] A wine said to possess the qualities of a fair claret, is made by submitting to fermentation the following mixture:--", "White sugar 5 kilos. Raisins 5 „ Sodium chloride 125 grammes. Tartaric acid 200 „ Brandy 12 litres. Water 95 „ Gall nuts 20 grammes. Brewer’s yeast 200 „", "Another recipe for Bordeaux wine is:--", "Orris root 1 lb. Water 5 galls. Raspberry juice 1 „ Pure spirit 10 „ Essence of claret ½ lb. Sugar syrup 1 gall. Colour with cochineal.", "It is authentically stated that in the year 1881, 52 millions of gallons of factitious claret wine were made in France, and the industry has certainly not diminished in extent since this date. It is a significant fact that the importation of Spanish raisins into France has undergone a remarkable increase during the past few years. Nor is this species of sophistication confined to foreign wines. Establishments are in active operation in New York City and elsewhere in this country, where imitations of Californian hock and claret are made from fermented infusions of dried fruit (often charged with salicylic acid), and offered for sale at less than thirty cents per gallon, with more than the usual trade discount.[100] According to a reliable estimation, less than one-tenth of the wine sold as champagne is actually the product of that district, the remainder being fabricated from other wines or from cider.", "_Analysis of Wine._--The analysis of wine comprises the following estimations:--Specific gravity, alcohol, extract, sugar, polarisation, glycerine, total free acids, volatile acids, free tartaric acid, potassium bitartrate, malic acid, succinic acid, tannin, ethers, ash, chlorine, sulphuric and phosphoric acids, and colouring matters.", "_Specific gravity._--The density is determined by means of the gravity bottle, at a temperature of 15°.", "_Alcohol._--The proportion of alcohol is ascertained by the distillation of 50 or 100 c.c. of the wine in a suitable flask, which is connected with a Liebig’s condenser, until about half of the liquid has passed over. The distillate is made up to the original volume with water, and its specific gravity taken, from which the amount of alcohol (by weight) present is calculated by aid of the usual alcohol-metric tables (see p. 196). The result (as well as the proportions of the other constituents) is preferably stated in grammes per 100 c.c. of wine. The determination may also be made by first removing the alcohol by evaporation, adding distilled water to restore the original volume, and then estimating the density of the liquid (see under Beer, p. 142). In unfortified wines the alcoholic strength ranges from 6 to 12 per cent., and in wines which have received an addition of spirit, it may vary from 12 to 22 per cent.", "_Extract._--The extract is conveniently determined by evaporating 50 c.c. (measured at 15°), in a platinum dish over the water-bath, the residue being dried for 2½ hours in the steam-oven. In case a wine rich in sugar (containing, say, over 0·5 grammes per 100 c.c.) is under examination, 20 c.c. will suffice for the determination. The indirect method used in the estimation of the malt extract in beer may also be employed. According to Girardin and Pressier, it is possible to detect the watering of certain wines, the average composition of which is known, by means of the proportions of extract and alcohol present. For example, in genuine Bordeaux wines the proportion of extract ranges from 20 to 20·8 grammes per 1000 c.c., and the amount of alcohol is also very constant, it being a mean of 100 grammes per 1000 c.c. Should a sample of Bordeaux wine show an extract of 14·5 grammes per litre, the proportion of genuine wine present would be 72·5 per cent., for (1000 × 14·5)/20 = 725·00, the remainder being water and alcohol. In order to estimate the amount of spirits artificially added, the alcohol contained in 72·5 parts of the wine is determined. If, for instance, it is found to be 11 parts, then, (11 - 7·25 = ) 3·75 parts of alcohol have been added.[101] The quantity of extract in pure natural wine varies from 1·5 to 3 per cent., but in sweet and fortified wines, it may reach 10 per cent. or more.", "_Sugar._--The sugar in wine consists of a mixture of fruit and grape sugar, usually in the proportion of 3 parts of the former to 1 part of the latter. The amount of sugar is best estimated by Fehling’s solution (see p. 111). In the case of white wines, it is advisable to employ 100 c.c. for the determination; with sweet rich wines 25 c.c. are sufficient. The alcohol is first removed by evaporation over the water-bath, and the diluted liquid is next decolorised by means of bone-black or plumbic acetate, filtered, and made alkaline by addition of sodium carbonate. It is then made up to a volume of 200 c.c. and gradually added to 10 c.c. of Fehling’s solution. It is always well to test the wine by the polariscope, and, whenever the presence of cane sugar is indicated, to invert 100 c.c. of the sample by heating with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and again make a sugar determination with Fehling’s reagent after neutralisation with sodium carbonate.", "_Polarisation._--The optical examination of wine is conducted by adding 20 c.c. of plumbic acetate solution to 100 c.c. of the sample, shaking the mixture, allowing it to stand for a short time, and passing it through a filter. If necessary the filtrate is further decolorised with animal charcoal and again filtered. The polariscope tube is then filled with the clear solution and the reading made. The majority of wines exhibit a left-handed polarisation, which is due to the fact that, as a rule, the proportion of fruit sugar present predominates over that of grape sugar; moreover, ½ part of fruit sugar will neutralise the dextro-rotary action of 1 part of grape sugar. In case the presence of an excess of grape sugar is indicated by the polariscopic examination, it is often assumed that this body has been directly added to the wine. It sometimes occurs, however, that, in the fermentation process, more grape sugar remains undecomposed than fruit sugar, under which circumstances the preponderance of the former body in the resulting wine would not prove sophistication; but, under ordinary conditions, the presence of an excessive proportion of grape sugar may safely be regarded as strongly pointing to the artificial addition of must syrup.", "_Glycerine._--100 c.c. of the wine are reduced by evaporation on the water-bath to 10 c.c., some pure sand added, and then milk of lime to decided alkaline reaction, after which the mixture is evaporated nearly to dryness. When cold, the residue is thoroughly agitated with 50 c.c. of 96 per cent. alcohol, next heated to boiling on the water-bath, and then passed through a filter. The insoluble residue is repeatedly washed with more hot alcohol, the washings being added to the first filtrate. The solution is now evaporated until it assumes a viscous consistency. The residue is taken up with 10 c.c. of absolute alcohol, and 15 c.c. of ether are added, the mixture being shaken and allowed to stand at rest in a well-stoppered flask until it becomes clear. The solution is subsequently filtered into a tared glass capsule, then carefully evaporated to a syrupy condition over the water-bath, and the residue dried in the steam-oven for one hour, and finally weighed. According to Pasteur, 112·8 parts of grape sugar yield 3·6 parts of glycerine; in natural wine, therefore, the glycerine should amount to about 1/14th part of the alcohol present.", "_Acids._--The acids in wine consist of acetic, tartaric, malic, tannic, succinic, racemic, formic, and propionic.", "_Total free Acids._--These are determined by titrating 10 c.c. of the sample with 1/10th normal soda solution, litmus paper or tincture of logwood being employed as the indicator. Wines containing free carbonic acid should be repeatedly well-shaken before making the estimation. The free acids are expressed in terms of tartaric acid (C_{4}H_{6}O_{6}). If sulphuric acid or potassium bisulphate is present, a piece of filter paper will be rendered brittle when immersed in the wine for some time, and afterwards cautiously dried.", "_Volatile Acids._--The volatile acids are estimated by slowly evaporating 10 c.c. of the wine to the consistency of a syrup, and repeating the titration with 1/10th normal alkali solution. The difference in acidity represents the proportion of volatile acids present, which is stated in terms of acetic acid (C_{2}H_{4}O_{2}). It is evident that the non-volatile acids can be calculated by deducting from the total amount of free acids, the tartaric acid corresponding to the acetic acid found. The proportion of volatile acid in genuine wine varies from 0·3 to 0·6 per cent. According to Dupré, in white wine, one-fourth of the total acidity should be due to volatile acids, and in fortified and red wine, they should not exceed a proportion of one-third.", "_Free Tartaric Acid and Potassium Bitartrate._--In the presence of a small amount of free acids, the detection of a considerable proportion of free tartaric acid may fairly be considered as strong evidence that the wine is artificial. Nessler recommends the following qualitative test:--20 c.c. of the sample are repeatedly shaken with a little freshly prepared and finely ground cream of tartar. After standing one hour, the solution is filtered, 3 or 4 drops of a 20 per cent. solution of potassium acetate are added, and the mixture is allowed to remain at rest for twelve hours, when, in presence of free tartaric acid, a precipitation will take place. The quantitative estimation of free tartaric acid and potassium bitartrate is made by Berthelot’s method, as follows:--Separate portions of the wine (20 c.c. each) are introduced into two flasks, a few drops of 20 per cent. solution of potassium acetate being added to the second flask. 200 c.c. of a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether are then added to both flasks, their contents repeatedly shaken and finally set aside for eighteen hours at a temperature between 0° and 10°. The separated precipitates are now removed by filtration, washed with the ether-alcohol mixture, and then titrated with 1/10th normal alkali solution. That formed in the first flask corresponds to the potassium bitartrate originally contained in the wine; the second represents the total tartaric acid present. The addition of a small quantity of clean sand will assist in the separation of the precipitates.", "_Malic Acid._--A slight excess of lime-water is added to 100 c.c. of the wine, and, after standing for some time the solution is filtered, concentrated by evaporation to one-half its original volume, and treated with an excess of absolute alcohol. The resulting precipitate (consisting of calcium malate and sulphate) is collected upon a filter, dried and then incinerated. The proportion of malic acid contained is now estimated by volumetrically determining the amount of calcium carbonate present by means of a normal acid solution: 1 part of calcium carbonate represents 1·34 parts of malic acid (C_{4}H_{6}O_{5}).", "_Tannic Acid._--10 c.c. of the sample are taken, the free acids present neutralised with normal alkali solution, and a few drops of concentrated sodium acetate solution (40 per cent.) added. A solution of ferric chloride (10 per cent.) is then added, drop by drop, carefully avoiding an excess. A single drop of the iron solution represents 0·05 per cent. of tannic acid. The method of tannin determination described under Tea (see p. 22) can also be applied.", "_Succinic Acid._--500 c.c. of the wine are decolorised with bone-black, filtered, the filtrate evaporated over the water-bath nearly to dryness, and the residue repeatedly treated with alcohol-ether. The solution thus obtained is concentrated, carefully neutralised with lime-water, evaporated to dryness, and the glycerine present removed by washing with the alcohol-ether mixture. The remaining residue is now treated with 80 per cent. alcohol, in order to dissolve the calcium succinate contained, every 100 parts of which represent 75·64 parts of succinic acid (H_{6}C_{4}O_{4}). Thudichum and Dupré state that one litre of pure wine contains from 1 to 1·5 grammes of succinic acid.", "_Ethers._--The compound ethers in wine are volatile and fixed, and exist in but minute proportions. Of the former class, ethylic acetate C_{2}H_{3}(C_{2}H_{5})O_{2} is the most important. As already mentioned, the aroma of wine is largely influenced by the presence of the ethers of the fatty acids, butyric, caprylic, etc. Dupré determines the proportion of both kinds of ethers indirectly as follows:--250 c.c. of the wine are distilled until 200 c.c. have passed over. Water is then added to the distillate to a volume of 250 c.c. 100 c.c. are first titrated with 1/10th normal soda solution. Another 100 c.c. of the distillate are next heated with a known quantity of alkali (by which the ethers are decomposed into their corresponding acids and alcohol), and the titration is repeated. The amount of _volatile_ ethers is then calculated from the increased acidity shown by the second titration. In order to determine the proportion of _fixed_ ethers, 500 c.c. of the sample are evaporated over the water-bath to a small volume which is made alkaline, and then subjected to distillation. The distillate is acidulated with sulphuric acid and again distilled. The alcohol present in the second distillate is now oxidised to acetic acid by means of potassium dichromate, and the amount of this acid found estimated by titration. According to Berthelot, the proportion of ethers in genuine wine bears a fixed relation to the amounts of alcohol and acids present: he suggests the following formula for calculating the amount of alcohol contained in the compound ether of one litre of wine, when etherification is complete:--", "_y_ = 1·17 A + 2·8", "_x_ = (_y_ × _a_) / 100,", "where A is the percentage, by weight, of alcohol; _a_ the amount of alcohol equivalent to the total free acid in one litre of wine (assuming this to be acetic acid); _y_, the proportion per cent. of _a_ present as compound ether in one litre of wine, when the alcoholic strength of the wine is A; and _x_, the amount of alcohol present in the compound ether of one litre of wine.", "_The Ash._--100 c.c. of the wine are evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish, over the water-bath, and the residue is incinerated at a rather low temperature and weighed. By this process, the tartrates and malates contained in the wine are converted with carbonates. The ash of normal wine consists of potassium sulphate, carbonate, phosphate and chloride, sodium chloride, calcium carbonate, etc., but, in many samples, it will be found to be largely if not entirely composed of sulphates, which is due to the practice of sulphuring and plastering.[102] Generally speaking, the proportion of ash in genuine wine ranges from 0·15 to 0·30 per cent.", "_Chlorine._--100 c.c. of the sample are neutralised with sodium carbonate, evaporated to dryness, and the residue gently ignited. It is then extracted with boiling water, filtered, and the chlorine determined by means of silver nitrate, either volumetrically or gravimetrically.", "_Sulphuric Acid._--100 c.c. are acidulated with hydrochloric acid, the liquid heated to boiling, and the sulphuric acid precipitated by barium chloride. The precipitate is well washed, dried, and weighed. 100 parts represent 42·49 parts H_{2}SO_{4}. Pure wine contains from 0·109 to 0·328 gramme of monohydrated sulphuric acid per litre (corresponding to 0·194 to 0·583 gramme potassium sulphate). The presence of an excess of this maximum amount indicates that the wine has been plastered.", "_Phosphoric Acid._--100 c.c. of the wine are evaporated, the residue ignited, dissolved in a little water, acidulated with nitric acid, and then added to an excess of solution of ammonium molybdate. After standing over night the separated precipitate is dissolved in ammonia and the phosphoric acid determined by means of an ammoniacal solution of magnesium sulphate. 100 parts of the precipitate thus obtained correspond to 63·96 parts of phosphoric acid. The former belief that the best qualities of wine contain the largest proportion of phosphoric acid does not appear to be invariably correct.", "_Salicylic Acid._[103]--The determination of this acid is accomplished as follows:--100 c.c. of the sample are repeatedly agitated with chloroform, which is subsequently separated and evaporated to dryness. The residue is re-crystallised from chloroform and weighed; its identity can be established by dissolving it in water and adding solution of ferric chloride (see p. 149).", "_Sulphurous Acid._--For the detection and estimation of sulphurous acid, the following methods have been recommended:--500 c.c. of the wine are placed in a flask, the exit-tube of which dips into a test-tube which is suitably cooled, and subjected to distillation. When about 2 c.c. have distilled, a few drops of a _neutral_ solution of silver nitrate are added to the distillate: in presence of sulphurous acid, a white curdy precipitate will be formed, which differs from silver chloride in being soluble in nitric acid. According to Haas,[104] this test is not invariably decisive, as pure wine may cause the precipitation under certain conditions; moreover, acetic acid is said to render silver nitrate turbid in strong alcoholic solutions. Sulphurous acid can be quantitatively determined by adding phosphoric acid to 100 c.c. of the wine, and distilling it in an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas. The distillate is received in 5 c.c. of normal iodine solution. When one-third of the sample has passed over, the distillate (which should still contain an excess of free iodine), is acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and the sulphuric acid formed precipitated with barium chloride.", "_Colouring matters._--Very numerous processes have been published for the detection of foreign and artificial colouring matters in wine. Among those suggested are the following:--", "1. A few drops of the sample are placed in succession on the smooth surface of a piece of white calcined lime, and notice taken of the tint produced. The following colours are stated to occur with pure and artificially coloured wine:--", "Natural red wine yellowish brown. Wine coloured with fuchsine rose colour. „ „ „ Brazil wood „ „ „ „ „ logwood reddish violet. „ „ „ black hollyhock yellowish brown. „ „ „ poke-berries yellowish red.", "2. If ammonium hydroxide be added to the suspected sample to distinct alkaline reaction, then a little ammonium sulphide and the liquid filtered, the filtrate from genuine wine will possess a green tint, whereas that obtained from artificially coloured wine will exhibit other colours, such as red, blue, violet, or brown.", "3. 100 c.c. of the wine are evaporated to about one-half of the original volume, ammonium hydroxide added to alkaline reaction, and the liquid thoroughly shaken. Ether is then added, and the mixture again well shaken. It is next introduced into a separator, and allowed to stand at rest until the ether has risen to the surface, when the lower stratum is drawn off, and the residual ether washed by agitation with water, which is subsequently removed. The ethereal solution is now transferred to a flask connected with a Liebig’s condenser, a piece of white woollen yarn introduced into the liquid, and the contents of the flask distilled at a gentle heat: in presence of the smallest amount of fuchsine, the wool will acquire a very perceptible reddish hue.", "4. A slight excess of ammonium hydroxide is added to 50 c.c. of the wine, a piece of white woollen fabric introduced, and the liquid boiled until the alcohol and ammonia are expelled. By this treatment it will be found that most aniline colouring matters, if present, become attached to the wool. Their presence can be corroborated by removing the fabric, washing and pressing it, and then dissolving it, with constant stirring, in a hot solution of potassium hydroxide. When solution has taken place, the liquid is allowed to cool, and one-half its volume of alcohol is added, then an equal volume of ether. The mixture is vigorously shaken, and, after remaining at rest for some time, the supernatant ethereal solution is removed, introduced into a test-tube, and a drop or two of acetic acid added. In presence of fuchsine, its characteristic colour will now become apparent. Methyl violet and aniline blue are separated by an analogous process.", "5. Logwood and cochineal may be detected by agitating 100 c.c. of the suspected wine with manganic peroxide, and filtering. The filtrate afforded by pure wine will be colourless.", "6. In Dupré’s process,[105] cubes of jelly are first prepared by dissolving 1 part of gelatine in 20 parts of hot water, and pouring the solution into moulds to set. These are immersed in the wine under examination for 24 hours, then removed, slightly washed, and the depth to which the colouring matter has permeated is observed: pure wine will colour the gelatine very superficially; the majority of other colouring principles (e.g. fuchsine, cochineal, logwood, Brazil wood, litmus, beetroot, and indigo) penetrate the jelly more readily and to a far greater degree. Dilute ammonium hydroxide dissolves from the stained cake the colouring matter of logwood and cochineal, but not that derived from fuchsine or beetroot.", "7. The colouring principle of genuine wine when subjected to dialysis, does not pass through the animal membrane to any decided extent, while that of logwood, cochineal, and Brazil wood easily dialyses.", "8. Many of the foreign dyes added to wine are precipitated by a solution of basic plumbic acetate. The precipitate obtained upon treating 10 c.c. of the sample with 3 c.c. of this reagent is collected on a filter and washed with a 2 per cent. solution of potassium carbonate, which dissolves cochineal, sulphindigotic acid and aniline red. The latter is separated upon neutralising the solution with acetic acid, and shaking with amylic alcohol, which, in its presence, will acquire a rose colour. The liquid is next acidulated with sulphuric acid, and again agitated with amylic alcohol, by which the carminamic acid, originating from cochineal, is isolated. Any remaining indigo (as well as the carminamic acid) is to be subsequently identified by means of its spectroscopic reactions. Upon treating the portion of the plumbic acetate precipitate which remains undissolved by potassium carbonate with a dilute solution of ammonium sulphide, the colouring matter of pure wine and of logwood is dissolved. If, in presence of logwood, the original sample is shaken with calcium carbonate mixed with a little calcium hydroxide solution and filtered, the filtrate will exhibit a decided red tint, but, if the wine treated be pure, little or no coloration will be produced.", "9. An artificial colouring for wine, known as _rouge végétale_, is not uncommonly employed. According to Amthor,[106] its presence can be recognised as follows:--100 c.c. of the wine are distilled until all alcohol is removed. The residual liquid is strongly acidulated with sulphuric acid, and agitated with ether. Some woollen yarn is next introduced into the ethereal solution, which is then evaporated over the water-bath. In presence of _rouge végétale_, the wool will acquire a brick-red colour, which turns violet upon treatment with ammonium hydroxide.", "10. Cauzeneuve and Lepine[107] state that acid aniline red, “naphthol-yellow S,” and roccelline red are harmless, whereas safranine and ordinary Martius’ yellow are decidedly poisonous.", "The presence of “Bordeaux red”[108] is recognised by first adding sodium sulphate to the suspected wine, then a solution of barium chloride: the artificial dye is carried down with the precipitated barium sulphate, from which it can be extracted by means of sodium carbonate solution. The brownish-red liquid thus obtained acquires a deep red colour if acidulated with acetic acid, which it readily communicates to silk upon boiling. Natural red wine fails to produce a coloration under the same circumstances.", "For the detection of the presence of artificial colouring matter the following process is used in the Municipal Laboratory in Paris:--Preliminary tests are made--", "1st. By soaking pieces of chalk in an aqueous solution of egg-albumen; these are dried and applied for use by dropping a little of the wine upon them, and noting the coloration produced. Natural coloured wine usually causes a greyish stain, which, in highly coloured varieties, may verge to blue.", "2nd. Baryta water is added to the wine under examination until the mixture acquires a greenish hue, after which it is shaken with acetic ether or amylic alcohol. If the wine be pure, the upper layer remains colourless, even after acidulation with acetic acid; whereas, in presence of _basic_ coal-tar dyes, such as fuchsine, amidobenzole, safranine, chrysoidine, chrysaniline, etc., characteristic colorations will be obtained.", "3rd. A few c.c. of the sample are made alkaline by the addition of dilute potassium hydroxide, some mercuric acetate added, and the mixture agitated and filtered. With pure wines, the filtrate is colourless; in the presence of _acid_ coal-tar derivatives, it is red or yellow.", "The general character of the artificial dye contained in the wine having been ascertained by the foregoing tests its more precise nature is determined as follows:--", "In case the foreign colouring is _basic_, the supernatant layer obtained in the second test is separated, and divided into two portions; one portion being evaporated with pure woollen yarn, the other with filaments of silk. The dyed threads are then subjected to the following tests:--", "(_a_) _Rose-aniline or safranine_ affords a red coloration; safranine usually attaches itself only on silk.", "(_b_) _Soluble aniline violet_ produces coloured threads which become green upon treatment with hydrochloric acid, the primitive colour reappearing upon dilution with water.", "(_c_) _Mauve-aniline_ gives a colour which turns blue upon addition of the acid.", "(_d_) _Chysotoluidine_ causes a coloration which is only slightly affected by the acid, but which is discharged upon boiling with zinc powder; upon protracted exposure to the air the colour reappears.", "(_e_) _Chrysoidine_ and _Amidonitrobenzole_ produce yellow colours, the former turning poppy-red if treated with sulphuric acid, the latter, scarlet. A general characteristic of dyes, similar to rose-aniline, is that they are decolorised by treatment with sodium bisulphite.", "If the presence of an _acid_ coal-tar dye is indicated by the third preliminary test, the following special methods of procedure are employed:--", "Two portions of the wine are saturated respectively with hydrochloric acid and with ammonium hydroxide water, and each portion is strongly agitated with acetic ether. The ethereal layers are removed by means of a pipette, then mixed together, evaporated to dryness, the residue obtained treated with a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid, and observations made of the colour obtained:--", "(_a_) Roccelline affords a violet colour. (_b_) Bordeaux, R. and B. „ blue „ (_c_) Panceau R., R.R., R.R.R. „ scarlet „ (_d_) Panceau, B. „ red „ (_e_) Biebrich red „ green to violet colour. (_f_) Tropeoline, O.O.O. „ red colour. (_g_) Tropeoline, O., and Chrysoidine „ orange-yellow colour. (_h_) Tropeoline, O.O. „ violet-red „ (_i_) Eosine „ yellow „", "The method employed in the Paris Municipal Laboratory for the detection of dried fruit wine, or of added commercial glucose, is substantially the following:--A little beer-yeast is added to 300 c.c. of the suspected wine, and the mixture is allowed to undergo fermentation at a temperature of about 30°. When the fermentation is completed, the filtered liquid is introduced into a dialyser, the outer water of which is automatically renewed. The process of dialysis is continued until the outer water ceases to show a rotary effect when examined by the polariscope, after which it is neutralised with calcium carbonate and evaporated to dryness over the water-bath, with constant stirring. The residue obtained is treated with 50 c.c. of absolute alcohol and filtered, the insoluble matters being twice washed with 25 c.c. of alcohol. The alcoholic filtrates are next decolorised by means of animal charcoal, and evaporated to dryness, and the solid residue is dissolved in 30 c.c. of water and polarised. Genuine claret, when tested in this manner, fails to exhibit a rotary power, or is but slightly dextrogyrate, whereas fruit wines, and those containing artificial starch sugar, strongly rotate respectively to the left or to the right.", "The following are some of the conclusions arrived at by a commission, appointed by the German Government, to inquire into uniform methods for wine analysis, and establish standards of purity for genuine wine.[109]", "(_a_) After deducting the non-volatile acids, the extract in natural wine should amount to at least 1·1 gramme per 100 c.c.; after deducting the free acids, to at least 1 gramme per 100 c.c.", "(_b_) Most natural wines contain one part of ash to every 10 parts of extract.", "(_c_) The free tartaric acid should not exceed 1/6th of the total non-volatile acids.", "(_d_) The relation between the alcohol and glycerine varies in natural wines between 100 parts alcohol to 7 parts glycerine, and 100 parts alcohol to 14 parts glycerine. These proportions do not apply, however, to sweet wines.", "(_e_) Genuine wines seldom contain less than 0·14 gramme of ash, nor more than 0·05 gramme of sodium chloride per 100 c.c.", "According to the analyses of Moritz, the maximum and minimum relative proportions of the constituents of natural wine are as follows:--The extract (after deducting the free acids) ranges from 1·10 to 1·78 per cent.; the proportion of ash to extract varies from 1 : 19·2 to 1 : 6·4; that of phosphoric acid to ash ranges from 1 : 12·3 to 1 : 10·49; that of alcohol to glycerine, from 100 : 12·3 to 100 : 7·7.[110] From the investigations of Dr. Dupré, it would appear that in genuine unfortified wines, the amount of alcohol present varies from 6 to 12 per cent. by weight. A wine containing less than 6 per cent. would be unpalatable, and more than 13 per cent. cannot well be present, since natural grape-juice does not contain the quantity of sugar requisite for the production of a greater amount of alcohol; moreover, an excess of this proportion would retard, if not entirely stop, the process of fermentation. Pure wines contain a greater proportion of volatile than fixed ethers, but in fortified wines the reverse is frequently the case. In natural wines, which are not over a few years old, the sugar present rarely amounts to 1 per cent., generally it is much less. Fortified wines, in which fermentation has been checked by the addition of alcohol, often contain 5 per cent. of sugar; champagnes usually show from 4 to 10 per cent., and, in some liqueur wines, a maximum of 25 per cent. has been found. In natural wines, the total dry residue generally ranges from 1·5 to 3 per cent., while in fortified wines the addition of sugar and other substances may increase its proportion to 10 per cent., or even more. At the Paris Municipal Laboratory the following standards are adopted: The amount of added water in all wines, not sold as of a special or abnormal character, is calculated on a basis of 12 per cent. of alcohol (by volume) and 24 grammes of dry extract per litre. The proportion of potassium sulphate in unplastered wines must not exceed 0·583 gramme per litre. The use of sali", "FOOTNOTES:", "[87] During the year 1886 the total production of Californian wine approximated 19½ million gallons, of which 3½ million gallons were consumed in the manufacture of brandy, and 5 million gallons exported.", "[88] These figures denote the weight in grammes of the ingredients contained in 100 c.c. of the wine; otherwise, percentages are expressed.", "[89] Berichte der Deutsch. Chem. Gesell., 1885, p. 426.", "[90] Zeit. f. Anal. Chem., 1885, p. 44.", "[91] Repert. Anal. Chem., 1882, ii., p. 1.", "[92] ‘Comptes Rendus,’ xcviii. p. 110.", "[93] _Vide_ ‘Spon’s Encyclopædia.’", "[94] Jay, Bullet. de la Soc. Chim., xlii. p. 217.", "[95] Dict. des Falsifications.", "[96] ‘Les Mondes, Revue Hebd. des Sciences,’ No. 4, 1876.", "[97] Bullet. de la Soc. de Chim., xlii. pp. 167 and 207.", "[98] Recent reports of the vintage in France for the year 1886, indicate that, while a decided improvement has been experienced in the Champagne, Burgundy, Hérault, and Rousillon districts, this has failed to be the case in Charentes and Gironde, where the phylloxera has again seriously injured the crops.", "[99] F. Schaffer (Zeits. Anal. Chem., xxiv. p. 559) has made the following analyses of artificial wine (grammes in 100 c.c.):--", "------------------------+--------+--------+------- Alcohol (by volume) | 8·05 | 9·55 | 7·02 Extract | 2·395 | 1·962 | 1·797 Sugar | 0·330 | 0·409 | 0·321 Ash | 0·209 | 0·135 | 0·160 Acidity (as tartaric) | 0·743 | 0·501 | 0·772 Free tartaric acid | -- | traces | traces Cream of tartar | 0·264 | 0·227 | 0·471 Sulphuric anhydride | 0·0374 | -- | -- Phosphoric anhydride | 0·0196 | 0·0135 | 0·0172 ------------------------+--------+--------+-------", "[100] It is asserted by a prominent wine merchant in New York that the monthly production of two manufacturers of artificial wine in this city exceeds 30,000 gallons.", "[101] Blyth, op. cit., p. 445.", "[102] According to J. Carter Bell (‘Analyst,’ vi. pp. 197, 221), the average composition of the ash of pure grape-juice is as follows:--", "K_{2}O Na_{2}O CaO MgO Fe_{2}O_{3} & Al_{2}O_{3} 42·14 3·37 11·48 9·67 0·75", "SiO_{2} P_{2}O_{6} SO_{3} Cl 0·29 9·60 9·14 1·09", "[103] Curtman (Jour. Pharm., xiv. p. 523) states that salicylic acid can be detected by adding to 4 c.c. of the wine (or beer) 2 c.c. of methylic alcohol and 2 c.c. of sulphuric acid. Shake the mixture, heat gently for two minutes, then allow to cool. Next heat to boiling, when, in presence of the acid, the odour of oil of wintergreen will be perceptible.", "[104] Zeit. f. Anal. Chem., xxi. p. 3, 1882.", "[105] Journ. Chem. Soc., xxxvii. p. 572.", "[106] Schweizer Wochenschrift, xxii. p. 143.", "[107] ‘Comptes Rendus,’ 101, pp. 823, 1011, 1167.", "[108] Répert de Pharm. xii. p. 504.", "[109] Reichsanzeiger, 1884, No. 154.", "[110] R. Borgman (loc. cit.) gives the follow average relations of ingredients in pure wine:--", "Alcohol : glycerine = 100 : 10·5 Extract : acidity = 1000 : 16·6 Acidity : ash = 10 : 3·4 Ash : extractives = 1 : 11·2 Phosphoric acid : ash = 1 : 6·8", "The ordinary forms of liquors (namely, whisky, rum, and gin), are prepared by the distillation of alcoholic infusions. The process of distillation is preceded either by the conversion of the amylaceous constituents of grain, first into sugar, then into alcohol, or by the fermentation of saccharine bodies into alcohol, or, as in the case of brandy, it may be directly applied to a solution containing alcohol.", "_Brandy._--When genuine, brandy is the product of the distillation of various sorts of rich, light-coloured wines. The most esteemed quality is prepared in the neighbourhood of Cognac, in the Deux Charentes district, and in Armagnac; but numerous inferior grades are manufactured in Rochelle and Bordeaux and in other parts of Southern France, as well as in Spain and Portugal. In the United States, a considerable quantity is produced by the distillation of California and Ohio wine. The fermented marc and lees of grapes are also extensively utilised in the manufacture of brandy. Most of the liquor known in commerce under this name, however, is made from the spirit obtained by the distillation of potatoes, corn, and other grains, which is subsequently rectified, deodorised, and then suitably flavoured. In France, the different grades of brandy are known as _eau-de-vie supérieure_ (the best quality of Cognac); _eau-de-vie ordinaire_ (common, sp. gr. 0·9476); _eau-de-vie de marc_ (chiefly used for mixing purposes); _eau-de-vie seconde_ (weak and inferior); _eau-de-vie à preuve de Hollande_ (sp. gr. 0·941); _eau-de-vie à preuve d’huile_ (sp. gr. 0·9185); _eau-de-vie forte_ (sp. gr. 0·8390); and _esprit-de-vin_ (sp. gr. 0·8610).", "The characteristic taste and bouquet of the original wine are to a considerable extent communicated to the resulting brandy, and upon these qualities its value is greatly dependent. Many of the remarks made in regard to the ageing, flavouring and blending of wines equally apply to brandy, and need not be repeated in this place. When freshly distilled, it is colourless, its amber tint being either due to the casks in which it has been stored, or to added caramel. The normal constituents of genuine brandy are water, alcohol (including small amounts of butylic, propylic and amylic), various ethers (acetic, oenanthic, butyric, and valerianic), aldehyde, acetic and tannic acids, and traces of sugar and the oil of wine. The specific gravity usually approximates 0·9300 (equivalent to 52 per cent. of alcohol by volume), it may, however, range from 0·9134 to 0·9381 (from 60 to 48 per cent. of alcohol). Owing to the presence of acetic acid, genuine brandy usually shows a slightly acid reaction. According to Blyth, the constituents vary as follows:--total solids, from 1 to 1·5 per cent.; ash, from ·04 to ·2 per cent.; acids (estimated as tartaric), from ·01 to ·05 per cent.; sugar from 0 to ·4 per cent. A partial examination of brandy, by König,[111] furnished the following percentages:--specific gravity, 0·8987; alcohol (by weight), 61·70; extract, 0·645; ash, 0·009. The ingredients found in twenty-five samples of brandy tested for the New York State Board of Health varied as follows:--specific gravity, 0·9297 to 0·9615; alcohol (by weight) from 25·39 to 42·96; extract, from 0·025 to 1·795; ash, from 0·002 to 0·014.", "The majority of these samples were certainly abnormal in composition. Ordonneau[112] has quite recently determined by careful fractional distillation the proportions of the more important constituents of cognac brandy twenty-five years old, with the following results, the quantities being stated in grammes per hectolitre:--aldehyde, 3; ethylic acetate, 35; acetal, traces; normal propylic alcohol, 40; normal butylic alcohol, 218·6; amylic alcohol, 83·8; hexylic alcohol, 0·6; heptylic alcohol, 1·5; propionic, butyric and caproic ethers, 3; oenanthic ether, 4; amines, traces. The large proportions of normal butylic and amylic alcohols obtained are very significant. It was found that commercial alcohol, prepared from corn, potatoes and beetroot, while containing isobutylic alcohol, was entirely free from normal butylic alcohol, and the difference in flavour between genuine brandy and brandy distilled from grains would appear to be mainly due to this fact. Normal butylic alcohol is obtained when fermentation takes place under the influence of elliptical or wine yeast, whereas the iso-alcohol is the product of fermentation induced by means of beer yeast; and it was shown that, by fermenting molasses, etc., with the aid of wine yeast, a spirit was obtained which much resembled brandy in colour and flavour.", "_Whisky._--Whisky is the spirituous liquor prepared by distilling fermented infusions of barley, wheat, corn, and other grains. Spirits that contain over 60 per cent. of alcohol are known as “high wines,” or common spirits; those containing 90 per cent. of alcohol are often termed “cologne spirits,” the name whisky being usually given to the product of a former distillation, containing about 50 per cent. by weight of alcohol. In Great Britain, the largest amount of whisky is made in Scotland and Ireland; in the United States, the principal supply comes from the States of Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky (Bourbon Co.), and Pennsylvania (Monongahela Co.). The grains taken differ greatly in composition. In Scotland and Ireland, malted barley (pure, or mixed with other grain) is extensively employed; in the preparation of Bourbon, partially malted corn and rye are taken, while, for Monongahela whisky, only rye (with 10 per cent. of malt) is used. The essential features of whisky-making are, first, the conversion of the starch of the grain into dextrine and glucose, which takes place in the process of _mashing_; the change being due to the action of the nitrogenous principle, _diastase_ (formed during the germination of the gain); then, the transformation of the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid by fermentation, which is induced by the addition of yeast; and, finally, the concentration of the alcohol by distillation. The quality of whisky is much affected by the nature of the grain from which it is prepared, and by the care exercised in its manufacture, more particularly in the process of distillation. The most injurious ingredient in distilled spirits is commonly known as “fusel oil,” which term comprises several products of alcoholic fermentation, possessing a higher boiling point than ethylic alcohol, and consisting chiefly of amylic alcohol, accompanied by small proportions of butylic and propylic alcohols. Several varieties of fusel oil exhibiting distinctive pr", "_Rum._--Rum is obtained by the distillation of the fermented juice of sugar-cane or of molasses; a very considerable proportion of the article bearing this name is, however, made from grain spirit. In France and Germany the mother-liquor remaining after the extraction of beet-sugar, is utilised in the manufacture of a spirituous liquor greatly resembling rum in properties. The characteristic odour and taste of the liquor are mainly due to the presence of ethylic butyrate, and are frequently factitiously communicated to its imitations by the direct addition of this ether or of butyric acid. Grain spirit is also sometimes treated with pineapples, which likewise impart the distinctive flavour. Rum is chiefly produced in the West Indies, and in North America. The specific gravity ranges from 0·874 to 0·926; alcohol, from 50 to 70 per cent.; solid residue, from 0·7 to 1·50 per cent; ash, under 0·10 per cent.[114]", "The following are the results obtained by Berkhurts, from the analysis of various samples of genuine and artificial Jamaica rum:[115]--", "-----------------+----------+----------+---------+------- | Specific |Alcohol by| Total | Source. | Gravity. | Weight. | Solids. | Ash. -----------------+----------+----------+---------+------- London | 0·885 | 61·38 | 0·668 | 0·023 Glasgow | 0·875 | 61·38 | 4·800 | 0·089 Bremen | 0·875 | 74·07 | 0·568 | 0·031 Directly imported| 0·910 | 51·33 | 2·047 | 0·098 Artificial | .. | 38·94 | 0·469 | 0·033 Artificial | .. | 58·86 | 0·926 | 0·021 -----------------+----------+----------+---------+-------", "The variations in the composition of commercial rum would seem to be so great that little information of value concerning its authenticity is to be derived from analyses of a general character.", "_Gin._--Genuine Holland gin is a spirit prepared by the distillation of fermented grain infusions (rye and malted barley), flavoured with juniper berries, or oil of turpentine. Formerly the flavouring was directly introduced into the still together with the mash, but the more recent practice is to add salt, water, and juniper berries to the distilled grain spirit, and then re-distil the mixture. Numerous other aromatic substances are likewise employed in the manufacture of gin, among which are coriander, cardamom, and caraway seeds, orris, angelica, and calamus roots, cassia, bitter-almonds, sweet fennel, etc. Cayenne pepper, sugar, and acetic acid, are said to be also frequently added to gin. Gin doubtless possesses more of an artificial character than any other spirit. It is safe to assert that the great bulk of the drink sold under the name is simply grain-spirits flavoured with some of the preceding aromatics. On the other hand, the flavouring agents employed are not, as a rule, harmful in their effects, so that the quality of the liquor is mainly dependent upon the extent to which the spirits used have been rectified. It is difficult to define “pure gin,” since, owing to its compound character, it varies in composition according to the method of manufacture followed by each individual distiller. The variations found from the examination of twenty-five samples of the commercial article, tested by the New York State Board of Health, were as follow:[116]--Specific gravity, from 0·9302 to 0·9694; alcohol (by weight), from 18·64 to 44·33; solid residue, from 0·018 to 0·772; ash, from 0·001 to 0·019.", "_Adulteration of liquors._--Although it is notorious that the more common varieties of spirituous liquors are sophisticated, the practices resorted to are unfortunately usually of a character that does not permit of positive detection, and, unless an actual adulteration, such as the addition of some substance foreign to the genuine liquor, has been made, a chemical examination alone is frequently inadequate to distinguish between the true and the factitious article. In fact, the ordinary physical qualities, such as odour and taste, are often of greater service in determining the genuineness of distilled spirits than more scientific tests. The most prevalent form of sophistication with brandy, rum, and gin, is their artificial imitations; the direct addition of substances deleterious to health being of comparatively unfrequent occurrence. It is usual to employ a certain proportion of the genuine liquor in the fabrication of its imitation. An apparent objection to this species of adulteration is that grain spirits are liable to be used as the basis of the fictitious product, which is therefore apt to be contaminated with fusel oil, a compound producing toxic effects in a proportion fifteen times greater than ordinary ethylic alcohol.", "In the United States, whisky is probably less subjected to serious sophistication than other spirituous drinks. While the blending of this liquor (i. e. the mixing of new and old grades) is almost universally practised by the refiner, and while the retail dealer often reduces its alcoholic strength by the addition of water, there is very little ground for the belief that, in this country, whisky is subjected to noxious admixture to any great extent.", "A very large number of recipes have been published for the manufacture of spurious liquors; the following are characteristic, and will indicate their general nature:--", "_For Brandy_:--", "Cologne spirits (reduced to proof) 40 galls. Oil of cognac 1/6 oz. Burnt sugar colouring 1½ pint. Tannin ¼ oz. Brandy essence 1 part. Alcohol 1000 parts. Water 600 „", "The compound known as “Brandy essence” consists of oil of grapes, 5 parts; acetic ether, 4 parts; tincture of allspice, 1 part; tincture of galls, 3 parts; and alcohol, 100 parts. “Oil of cognac” is a mixture of amylic alcohol and oenanthic ether.", "According to M. Duplais, the best imitation of Cognac is the following:--", "Alcohol (85 per cent.) 54 litres. Rum (good quality) 2 „ Syrup of raisins 3 „ Infusion of green walnut hulls 2 „ Infusion of the shells of bitter almonds 2 „ Catechu, in powder 15 grammes. Balsam of tolu 6 „ Pure water 37 litres. Mix and colour with caramel.", "New Cognac, Montpellier, Saintonge, and other brandies are aged and improved by adding to every 100 litres: old rum, 2 litres; old kirsch, 1-3/4 litres; infusion of green walnut hulls, 3/4 litre; syrup of raisins, 2 litres.", "A compound sold as “London Brandy Improver” consists of sugar syrup, acetic ether and essence of cayenne, coloured with caramel.", "_Whisky_:-- (Rye) Proof spirit 50 galls. Pelargonic ether 2 oz. Pear oil 1 „ Oil of wintergreen (dissolved in alcohol) 10 drops. Acetic ether 4 oz. Oil of cloves (dissolved in acetic ether) 4 drops.", "(Scotch) Alcohol (95 per cent.) 46 galls. Scotch whisky 8 „ Water 18 „ Honey (3 lbs. in 1½ gall. water) Creosote 5 drops. Acetic acid 2 oz. Pelargonic ether 1 „ Ale 1 gall.", "(Irish) Spirits 30 galls. Irish whisky 5 „ Old ale ½ „ Creosote (dissolved in acetic acid) 4 drops. Pelargonic ether 1 oz.", "The preparation met with in commerce under the name of “pelargonic ether” appears to be identical with oenanthic ether.", "_Rum_:-- Rectified spirits 6 quarts. Jamaica rum 22 „ Rum essence 1½ oz. Vanilla essence 1/10 „ Water 2 quarts. St. John’s bread 1½ oz. Raisins 1½ „", "Proof spirits 40 galls. Rum essence ½ pint. Sugar colouring ½ „ Sugar syrup 1 quart.", "“Rum essence” is composed of butyric ether, 15 parts; acetic ether, 2 parts; vanilla tincture, 2 parts; essence of violets, 2 parts; and alcohol, 90 parts.", "_Gin_:-- Corn spirits 80 galls. Oil of turpentine 1 pint. Oil of juniper 8 oz. Salt 21 lbs. Water 35 galls. Oil of caraway ½ oz. Oil of sweet fennel ¼ „ Cardamoms 8 „ Distil over, 100 galls.", "The chemical examination of distilled spirits is ordinarily limited to a determination of the alcohol, solid residue, ash, and volatile acids, coupled with special qualitative and quantitative tests for any particular adulterants, the presence of which may be suspected.", "(_a_) _Alcohol._--In properly distilled liquors, a fairly approximate estimation of their alcoholic strength is effected by the specific gravity determination, which is best made by means of the special gravity bottle. In the case of spirituous liquors which contain extractive matters, it is necessary to first separate the alcohol present by the process of distillation, and then determine the density of the distillate when made up to the volume originally taken. The following table gives the percentages of alcohol by weight and by volume, and of water by volume, for specific gravities at 15°.[117]", "The percentages of alcohol in the table are calculated for the temperature of 15°. The necessary correction for differences of temperature at which the determination is made is obtained by multiplying the number of degrees above or below 15°, by 0·4, and adding the product to the percentage shown by the table, when the temperature is lower than 15°, and deducting it when it is above.", "Percentage of alcohol, by weight and by volume, and of water by volume, for specific gravity at 15°; water at same temperature being the unit:--", "---------+------------------------- | PERCENTAGE. +---------+--------------- | By | By | Weight. | Volume. Specific +---------+------+-------- Gravity. | Alc. | Alc. | Water. ---------+---------+------+-------- 1·0000 | 0· | 0 | 100· 0·9985 | 0·80 | 1 | 99·05 0·9970 | 1·60 | 2 | 98·11 0·9956 | 2·40 | 3 | 97·17 0·9942 | 3·20 | 4 | 96·24 0·9928 | 4·00 | 5 | 95·30 0·9915 | 4·81 | 6 | 94·38 0·9902 | 5·61 | 7 | 93·45 0·9890 | 6·43 | 8 | 92·54 0·9878 | 7·24 | 9 | 91·62 0·9867 | 8·06 | 10 | 90·72 0·9855 | 8·87 | 11 | 89·80 0·9844 | 9·69 | 12 | 88·90 0·9833 | 10·51 | 13 | 88·00 0·9822 | 11·33 | 14 | 87·09 0·9812 | 12·15 | 15 | 86·19 0·9801 | 12·98 | 16 | 85·29 0·9791 | 13·80 | 17 | 84·39 0·9781 | 14·63 | 18 | 83·50 0·9771 | 15·46 | 19 | 82·60 0·9761 | 16·29 | 2