FEVER POWDERS (James's, also called James's Powder and Pulvis Jacobi).

["FEVERSTONE--Lapis Anti-febrilis--Fieber Stein.= Lead oxide, 54 parts; arsenic acid, 46 parts; melted together. (Winckler.)", "FI'BRIN.= _Syn._ FIBRINE. An azotised substance, forming the coagulable portion of fresh-drawn blood, and the principal constituent of the muscular or fleshy parts of animals. It is eminently nutritious, and capable of yielding in the animal body albumen, caseine, and the tissues derived from them. (Liebig.)", "_Prep._ Fibrin is easily obtained in a nearly pure state, by agitating or beating newly drawn blood with a small bundle of twigs, when it attaches itself to the latter under the form of long reddish filaments, which become white when worked with the hands in a stream of cold water. It may also be procured by washing the coagulum of blood, tied up in a cloth, in cold water, until all the soluble portions are removed. A small quantity of fat, which it still contains, may be removed by digesting it in ether.", "_Prop., &c._ Pure fibrin occurs as long, white, elastic filaments, which are tasteless, inodorous, and insoluble in both hot and cold water. Wetted with acetic acid, it forms, after a time, a transparent jelly, which is slowly soluble in pure water. Very dilute solutions of the caustic alkalies dissolve it completely, and the new solution greatly resembles liquid albumen. Dried by a gentle heat it loses about 80% of water.", "FICHTENNADEL-BRUSTZUCKER (Pine-needle Pectoral Sugar).= (L. Morgenthau, Mannheim.) For irritable cough, hoarseness, tightness of the chest, asthma, stubborn lung affections, chronic catarrh, &c. Little sticks of bonbon, containing a very little opium, and wrapped in tinfoil. (Hager.)", "FICHTENNADEL-TABAK (Pine-Needle Tobacco.= (L. Morgenthau.) Is said to be patented in England. Ordinary tobacco moistened or sprinkled with a weak spirituous solution of wood wool extract and wood wool oil and dried; made up in cigars for smoking. (Hager.)", "FIG.= _Syn._ FICUS (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), CARICA, CARICÆ FRUCTUS, L. The figs of commerce are the dried fruit of _Ficus Carica_, the common fig-tree. They are demulcent, emollient, laxative, and pectoral. Roasted and boiled figs are occasionally employed as poultices to gumboils and other affections of the mouth.", "FILARIA DRACUNCULUS.= The Guinea worm. The female of this parasite is to be met with in tropical climates only, infesting the subcutaneous cellular tissue of man and some animals. In appearance it resembles a piece of white whip-cord of uniform thickness. According to Mr Ewart it varies in length from twelve and three quarters to forty inches, and is on an average twenty-five and a half inches long. It usually contains only one young worm, although rare instances have occurred in which as many as fifty of its progeny have been discovered in the same parent. In almost every case when this creature leaves the body, it does so by the lower extremities; occasionally, however, it does so by the mouth, the cheeks, or below the tongue. When the young of the guinea worm are placed in pure water they survive only four or five days; in foul water they will exist for three weeks. It appears that immersion in water, of the body of the person afflicted with the parasite, sometimes has the effect of inducing the creature to leave his human quarters, since Dr Lorimer states \"that many people belonging to the bazaars in the vicinity of the lines, affected with the parasite, come, for the express purpose of extracting the worm, to the same tank where the men of the regiment bathe. The people so infested swim about in the water, with the worm hanging loose, drawing the limb quickly backwards and forwards, and from side to side, until the expulsion is affected.\" Outside the body the guinea worm is generally found beneath organic débris in wells, tanks, and other reservoirs for water, from whence it appears to be now pretty universally admitted it effects an entrance through the skin during bathing or wading.", "FILARIA SANGUINIS HOMINIS.= In 1872, Dr T. R. Lewis, in examining microscopically the blood and urine of some of his patients in India, discovered a worm enveloped in an extremely delicate tube, closed at both ends, within which it could either elongate or shorten itself. This parasite (called from its principal habitat the _Filaria Sanguinis Hominis_) is about 1/75th of an inch in length, and about 1/35000th of an inch in diameter. When removed from the body with a small quantity of blood, it is described as being in a state of incessant motion, unceasingly coiling and uncoiling itself, lashing the blood-corpuscles in all directions, and insinuating itself between them.", "The worms are said, when first taken from the body, to present a translucent appearance; the larger specimens, however, frequently exhibit an aggregation of granules towards the junction of the lower and middle half. Occasionally a bright spot, suggestive of a mouth, is seen at the thicker extremity. It is stated that they continue active from six to thirty hours. Mr Lewis does not believe they are able to perforate the tissues.", "\"These parasites,\" says Mr Lewis, \"are so persistently ubiquitous, as to be obtained day after day by simply pricking any portion of the body, even to the tips of the fingers and toes of both hands and both feet of one and the same person, with a finely pointed needle. On one occasion six excellent specimens were obtained in a single drop of blood by merely pricking the lobule of the ear.\"", "Dr Lewis estimates, from the number of the Filaria found in one drop of the blood of one patient, that his body must have contained more than 140,000. The presence of these creatures in the blood is believed to be the cause of chylous urine, which is a very common disease in the East. It seems probable they gain admission into the body from being present in drinking water.", "FIL'BERT.= _Syn._ FILBERD. The fruit of the cultivated hazel or nut-tree (_Corylus Avellana_). Filberts are distinguished from common nuts by their lengthened figure and larger size. The best are imported from Spain.", "FILES.= The manufactures of these articles do not come within the limits of this work. It may, however, be useful to mention that FILES, FLOATS, and RASPS, which \"cut dull\" from age, dirt, or being much worn, are greatly improved by being kept wet, immersed in water for some hours, or even for a day or two.", "Mr Ernest Spon recommends the following method for renovating files:--The file to be first cleansed from all foreign matter, and then dipped in a solution of one part of nitric acid, three parts of sulphuric acid, and seven parts of water; the time of immersion will be according to the extent the file has been worn, and the fineness of the teeth, varying from five seconds to five minutes. On taking it out of the mixture, wash in water, then dip in milk of lime, wash off the lime, dry by a gentle heat, rub over equal parts of olive oil and turpentine, and finally brush over with powdered coke.", "FIL'TER.= _Syn._ FILTRUM, L. An instrument or apparatus for straining or filtering liquids.", "FIL'TERING POWDERS.= _Prep._ 1. Fuller's earth washed, dried without heat, and reduced to coarse powder.", "2. Pipe clay or potter's clay, as the last. Both the above are used to filter and bleach oils.", "3. Clay or fuller's earth, 1 part; fine siliceous sand, 2 parts; the two are separately washed, after which they are drained, and mixed together, and dried as before. Used for GLUTINOUS OILS.", "4. Granulated animal charcoal, sifted and fanned from the dust. Used to filter and bleach SYRUPS and VEGETABLE SOLUTIONS.", "_Obs._ Filtering powders are prepared of several degrees of coarseness, and should be chosen with reference to the degree of fluidity of the liquid to be filtered through them. In no case should they be reduced to fine powder, as not only is the process of filtration thereby rendered unnecessarily tedious, but in some cases (as when charcoal dust is mixed with glutinous vegetable solutions and syrups) the filtrate carries off a portion of the powder, which can afterwards be separated from it only with considerable difficulty. See CHARCOAL, FILTRATION, OIL, &c.", "FILTRA'TION.= _Syn._ FILTRATIO, L. The separation of liquids from substances mechanically suspended in them, by passing them through media having pores sufficiently fine to retain or keep back the solid matter. Filtration is one of the most common and useful of the chemico-mechanical operations of the arts, and its successful performance in an economical and expeditious manner is therefore a matter of the highest importance in the laboratory, and, indeed, in almost every branch of human skill and industry, in which liquids are employed. Simple in principle, and apparently easily performed, it is, nevertheless, one of those operations which require no less of care than of tact and experience to conduct it with certainty and success. The losses sustained in the laboratory, by defective manipulation in this particular, often exceed those arising from ignorance and accidents in every other department conducted in it.", "Filtration is generally resorted to for the purpose of freeing liquids from feculence, dirt, and other foreign matter, and for obtaining them in a clear or transparent state; but, in some cases, it has for its object the collection of the suspended substances, as precipitates, &c., and in others both these intentions are combined. The word 'filtration' is absolutely synonymous with 'straining,' but in the language of the laboratory it is usually applied to the operation of rendering liquids transparent, or nearly so, by passing them through fine media, as filtering paper, sand, and the like; whilst the term 'straining' is employed to designate the mere separation of the grosser portion, by means of coarse media, flannel, horsehair cloth, &c., through which they flow with considerable rapidity. Filtration is distinguished from 'clarification' by its mere mechanical action, whereas the latter operates by depuration, or the subsidence of the suspended substances or fæces, arising from their gravity being naturally greater than the fluid with which they are mixed, or being rendered so by the application of heat, or by the addition of some foreign substance.", "The apparatus, vessels, or media, employed for filtration, are called 'FILTERS,' and are technically distinguished from 'STRAINERS' by the superior fineness of their pores.", "Both strainers and filters act on the same principles as the common sieve on powders; they all, in like manner, retain or hold back the coarser matter, and permit the liquid or smaller and more attenuated particles to pass through. The term 'medium' (pleural 'media') is applied to the substance or substances through the pores of which the liquid percolates.", "The form of filters, and the substances of which they are composed, are various, and depend upon the nature of the liquids for which they are intended. On the small scale, funnels of tin, zinc, copper, wedgwood-ware, earthenware, glass, or porcelain, are commonly employed as the containing vessels. (See _engr._) The filtering medium may be any substance of a sufficiently spongy or porous nature to allow of the free percolation of the liquid, and whose pores are, at the same time, sufficiently small to render it limpid or transparent. Unsized paper, flannel, linen, calico, cotton wool, felt, sand, coarsely powdered charcoal, porous stone, or earthenware, and numerous other substances of a similar kind, are employed for this purpose.", "For many liquids that filter easily, and in which the suspended matter is of a coarse and porous nature, it is often sufficient merely to place a little cotton wool or tow, or a small piece of sponge, in neck of the funnel, as at (_a_, fig. 1) in the above engr.; but such an apparatus, from the small extent of the filtering surface, acts either slowly or imperfectly, and soon gets choked up. Filters of unsized paper are well suited for all liquids that are not of a corrosive or viscid nature, and are universally employed for filtering small quantities of liquids in the laboratory. A piece of the paper is taken of a size proportionate to the quantity of the liquid to be filtered, and is first doubled from corner to corner into a triangle (see _engr. a_), which is again doubled into a smaller triangle _b_, and the angular portion of the margin being rounded off with a pair of scissors _c_, it constitutes a paper cone, which is placed on a funnel of proportionate capacity, and is then nearly filled with the liquid. A piece of paper so cut, when laid flat upon the table, should be nearly circular. Filtering paper is now sold ready cut in circles of various sizes, which simply require doubling for use. Another method of forming a paper filter, preferred by some persons, is to double the paper once, as above, and then to fold it in a similar way to a fan, observing so to open it and lay it on the funnel that a sufficient interval be left between the two to permit of the free passage of the filtered liquid on its descent towards the receiver. The 'plaited filter,' as thus formed, is exceedingly useful for general purposes; it exposes the entire surface of the paper to the liquid, and allows filtration to proceed more rapidly than a 'plain filter' does. (See Fig. 3.)", "Mr Rother takes objection to the ordinary plain paper filter employed in the laboratory, because of the superfluous fold which in two thicknesses lies under one half of the extended surface of the filter. He says the interposition of these two extra layers compels the liquid to pass through three thicknesses of paper on the half side of the extended filter, whilst the other half side presents only a single thickness. It is evident that the two hidden layers are a very appreciable impediment to the current, aside from the more important fact that the liquid will traverse this side less rapidly than the other, and thus occasion an imperfect washing of the precipitate, or at least prolong the operation beyond reasonable limits. Recognising these objections to the old filter, Mr Rother has invented a very simple modification of the plain filter which, whilst saving 50 per cent. of the paper, he states, removes all the defects of the old form. This new filter practically presents but a single thickness of paper to penetrate, at the same time preserving an even surface, equal in all other advantages to the plain filter.", "The filtrations are said to be more rapid than with the usual form, and the absence of the superfluous half sheet admits of more rapid drying.", "To make the new filter:--Cut the circular disk of filtering paper in two through the line of its diameter, take either half disk, and fold it across the line of the radius, then turn down the double edge of the cut side and fold it over several times--finally, run a hard smooth surface along the seam thus produced, to compress it, and spread the finished filter into an appropriate funnel, first moistening it with water before the liquid to be filtered is poured in.", "In reference to funnels, it may be remarked that those employed for filtering rapidly should be deeply ribbed on the inside, or small rods of wood or glass, or pieces of straw, or quills, should be placed between them and the paper. The neck or tubular part of the funnel should, in like manner, be deeply ribbed or fluted on the outside, to permit of the free passage of the air, when it is placed in a narrow-mouthed bottle or receiver. When this is not the case, filtration proceeds but slowly, and the filtered liquid is apt to be driven up the outside of the neck of the funnel by the confined air, and to be continually hissing and flowing over the mouth of the vessel. The breadth of a funnel, to filter well, should be about three fourths its height, reckoning from the throat (_a_). When deeper, the paper is liable to be continually ruptured, from the pressure of the superincumbent fluid; and when shallower, filtration proceeds slowly, and an unnecessarily large surface of the liquid is exposed to the atmosphere, and is lost by evaporation. To lessen this as much as possible, the upper edge of the glass is frequently ground perfectly smooth, and a piece of smooth plate-glass is laid thereon. When paper filters are of large dimensions, or employed for aqueous fluids that rapidly soften the texture of the paper, or for collecting heavy powders, or metallic precipitates, it is usual to support them on linen or calico, to prevent them breaking. This is best done by folding the cloth up with the paper, and cutting the filter out of the two, in the same way as would be done with doubled paper, observing so to place it in the funnel that the paper and calico may remain close together, especially towards the bottom.", "The filtration of small quantities of liquid, as in chemical experiments, may often be conveniently performed by merely placing the paper on the circular top of a recipient (see _engr._), or on a ring of glass or earthenware laid on the top of any suitable vessel. A filter of this kind that will hold one fluid ounce will filter many ounces of some liquids in an hour.", "Good filtering paper should contain no soluble matter, and should not give more than 1/250 to 1/230 of its weight of ashes. The soluble matter may be removed by washing it, first, with very dilute hydrochloric acid, and secondly, with distilled water.", "The 'Munktell' Swedish filtering paper[301] is composed of flax fibres very much crushed and broken, and owes its value to the broken pieces of the fibres filling up the pores, and thus preventing solids from passing through the paper. Rhenish filtering paper is also made from flax, but in consequence of the more perfect condition of its fibres, is more porous than Munktell's, and therefore inferior to it for filtering purposes. Another kind of Rhenish paper, also of flax, in which the fibres are much torn, is manufactured and is said to be a useful article, and to allow the rapid passage of fluids through it. The white filtering papers of English make have a small quantity of cotton mixed with the flax; and the fibres are much torn and crushed; hence they make serviceable filters.", "[Footnote 301: Dr F. Mohr says that Swedish filtering paper is now undeserving its traditional reputation, and that it contains soluble alumina.]", "The grey, circular cut filtering paper of varying sizes, of foreign make, as well as the grey sheet filtering paper of Dutch and English manufacture, contains a large quantity of wool, much of which is coloured; as well as jute and esparto grass, both of these latter in an unbleached state. The amount of ash in the Munktell paper has of late increased in quality.[302]", "[Footnote 302: Greenish.]", "For filtering a larger quantity of a liquid than can be conveniently managed with a funnel, and also for substances that are either too viscid or too much loaded with feculence to allow them to pass freely through paper, conical bags made of flannel, felt, tweeled cotton cloth or Canton flannel, linen or calico, and suspended to iron-hooks by rings or tapes, are commonly employed. The first two of the above substances are preferable for saccharine, mucilaginous, and acidulous liquors; the third for oily ones; and the remainder for tinctures, weak alkaline lyes, and similar solutions. These bags have the disadvantage of sucking up a considerable quantity of the fluid poured into them, and are therefore objectionable, except for large quantities, or when they are to be continued in actual use as filters for some time. On the large scale, a number of them are usually worked together, and are generally enclosed in cases to prevent evaporation, and to exclude dirt from the filtered liquor that trickles down their sides. These arrangements will be noticed further on.", "A simple mode of filtering aqueous fluids, which are not injured by exposure to the air, is to draw them off from one vessel to another, by means of a number of threads of loosely twisted cotton or worsted, arranged in the form of a syphon. (See _engr._) The little cotton rope at once performs the operations of decantation and filtration. This method is often convenient for sucking off the water from a small quantity of a precipitate.", "For fuller information on the subject of laboratory filtration, the reader is referred to the following papers (which are too long for quotation here) in 'The Chemical News':--", "\"On a New Mode of Filtration,\" by J. B. Cooke, May 30th, 1873; \"Filtering Apparatus,\" by John F. Kerr, February 6th, 1874; \"Implements for Filtration,\" by P. Casamajor, July 23rd, 1875, and 30th, 1875; Ibid, by W. Jago, February 4th, 1876; \"On Rapid Filtration,\" by E. C. H. Hildebrand, August 11th, 1876; also to 'Journal of the Chemical Society,' for papers on:--\"Simple Suction arrangement for Rapid Filtering,\" by C. Holthof, vol. xxxii, part 2, p. 508; \"Employment of Compressed Air on Filtering Solutions,\" by W. Leübe, vol. xxxii, part 1, p. 270.", "When solid substances, as porous stone or earthenware, are used as the media for filtrations, vessels of metal, wood, or stone-ware, are employed to contain them and the supernatant liquid. In these cases the filtering medium is usually arranged as a shelf or diaphragm, and divides the vessel into two compartments; the upper one being intended to contain the dirty liquid, and the under one to receive the same when filtered. Such an apparatus is set in operation by merely filling the upper chamber, and may at any time be readily cleared out by reversing it, and passing clean water through it in an opposite direction. Small arrangements of this kind, intended to be screwed on to the water supply-pipe by either end, and which answer the purpose intended in the most satisfactory manner, have been manufactured and vended under the name of 'REVERSIBLE' or 'SELF-CLEANING FILTERS,' When pulverulent substances, as sand, coarsely powdered charcoal, &c., are employed, a similar arrangement is followed; but in this case the shelf or diaphragm must consist of any convenient substance pierced with numerous holes, over which must be placed, first a stratum of coarse pebbles, next some of a finer description, and on this a proper quantity of the sand, charcoal, or other medium. Over the whole should be placed another layer of pebbles, or a board or plate of metal or earthenware, pierced with a number of holes, to allow the liquid to be poured into the filter without disturbing its arrangement. Apparatus of this kind, of a permanent description, and arranged for filtering large quantities of liquids, are properly denominated 'FILTERING MACHINES,'", "Among the liquids usually submitted to filtration, the following may be mentioned as the principal--water, oils, syrups, tinctures, vegetable juices, infusions, and decoctions.", "The filtration of water may now be considered. The water of our wells is presented by nature ready filtered to the hand of man, and often exhibits an admirable degree of transparency and purity. It acquires this state by percolating through the mineral strata of the earth, which deprives it of the organic matter it derives from the soil and subsoil, but, at the same time, it dissolves a portion of the saline and earthy media through which it passes, and hence acquires that peculiar 'hardness' which is constantly found in spring water. On the large scale, this natural system of filtration has been imitated by some of the commercial companies that supply our cities and towns with water. Extensive beds of sand and gravel have been employed, with variable success, as the filtering media; and were it not that filters gradually lose their porosity by the accumulation of the retained matter in their pores, such a method would be excellent. But the great expense of such filters precludes the possibility of frequently cleaning or renewing them, by which means they can alone be kept in an efficient state.", "A filter which possesses the advantages of being easily and cheaply cleaned when dirty, and which frees water from mechanical impurities with immense rapidity, may be formed by placing a stratum of sponge between two perforated metallic plates, united by a central screw, and arranged in such a manner as to permit of the sponge being compressed to any required degree. Water, under gentle pressure, flows with such rapidity through the pores of compressed sponge, that it is said that a few square feet of this substance will perfectly filter several millions of gallons of water daily. This method of filtration has been made the subject of a patent, and has been favorably noticed by the legislature.", "A few barrels or hogsheads of water may be easily filtered daily, by the arrangement represented in the engraving.", "_A._ A common water-pipe or cock. _b._ A false bottom fitting in perfectly water-tight. _c._ A perforated wooden or metallic vessel or box covered with a bag of felt or other filtering substance (not shown in the engraving). _d._ A small tube, fitting water-tight into the false bottom and uniting the _interior_ of the filter with the lower portion of the cask.]", "It is evident that when water is poured into the upper portion _B_ of a vessel, so arranged, it will sink through the filter _c_, and pipe _d_, into the lower chamber _C_, and this filtration will go on as long as the supply continues, and water is drawn from the cock _e_. By uniting the cock _e_ with a tank or casks, and by keeping the upper portion _B_ always full by means of a ball-cock, a considerable quantity of water may be thus filtered. The advantage of this plan is, that the filter _c_ can be always readily got at, and easily cleaned or renewed.", "For filtering water on the small scale, and for domestic use, 'alcarazzas,' diaphragms of porous earthenware and filtering-stone and layers of sand and charcoal, &c., already referred to, are commonly employed as filtering media. The filtering power of porous stone or earthenware may be greatly increased by adopting the arrangement represented in the margin, which consists in making the diaphragm of the shape of a disc (_d_), supporting plates of the same material, the whole forming but one piece. The 'PLATYLITHIC WATER-FILTERS,' which are formed of porous stone cut on this plan, present 200 to 300 square inches of filtering surface. A cheap, useful form of portable filter, is the following, given in the 'Proceedings of the British Association,' \"Take any common vessel, perforated below, such as a flower-pot, fill the lower portion with coarse pebbles, over which place a layer of finer ones, and on these a layer of clean coarse sand. On the top of this a piece of burnt clay, perforated with small holes, should be put, and on this again a stratum of three or four inches thick, of well burnt pounded animal charcoal. A filter thus formed will last a considerable time, and will be found particularly useful in removing noxious and putrescent substances held in solution by water.\"[303] The 'PORTABLE-FILTERS,' set up in stone-ware, that are commonly sold in the shops, contain a stratum of sand, or coarsely-powdered charcoal;[304] before, however, having access to this, the water has to pass through a sponge, to remove the coarser portion of the impurities. Among the many new kinds of portable filters now offered for sale, which claim special notice, are the following, viz.--", "[Footnote 303: A very similar filter to this was invented by the late Mr George Robins, the celebrated auctioneer. Mr Robins' filter differed from the above in having a lid with a hole in the centre in which a sponge was placed; an arrangement which by keeping back the suspended matter contained in the water, prevented the filter from being clogged up.]", "[Footnote 304: Frankland and Byrne have shown that animal is greatly superior to vegetable charcoal when employed for water-filters.]", "1.= The MOULDED CARBON FILTER, consisting of a spherical or cylindrical vessel formed of compressed carbon.", "2.= The SILICATED CARBON FILTER, in which the medium is a compact substance, formed of animal charcoal and the ashes of Boghead coal.", "Of the many forms of this filter, we may mention the 'Syphon Filter for Travellers,' by means of which wholesome water may be drunk from any pond or stream by simply immersing the filter therein and drawing the water through the tube by suction. Of the 'Silicated Carbon Filter,' Professor Wanklyn says that it will render river water containing a considerable amount of free and albuminoid ammonia as pure as deep spring water.", "3.= BISCHOFF'S PATENT SPONGY-IRON FILTER.--This differs from one invented many years ago by Dr Medlock, in bringing the water into contact with spongy iron instead of thin iron rods, and thus effecting filtration much more rapidly. Medlock believed that the iron rods brought about the oxidation of the nitrogenous organic matter and its consequent conversion into nitrites and nitrates. Bischoff states that he has experimentally investigated the properties of spongy iron, and finds that it--", "_a._ Decomposes even distilled water, which has been previously boiled.", "_b._ That it reduces nitric acid to ammonia.", "_c._ That the amounts of organic nitrogen and albuminoid ammonia are always much reduced after filtration through spongy iron.", "_d._ That a minute quantity of iron is dissolved by the carbonic acid contained in the water, ferrous bicarbonate being formed. The latter being soon oxidised and precipitated is easily removed by filtration.", "_e._ That the action of spongy iron on impure water is two fold, viz. chemical and mechanical. \"The chemical action is clearly indicated by the decomposition of water. The readiest explanation for the decomposition of water, is, the intimate contact between the electro-positive and electro-negative bodies, such as metallic iron and carbon, or even metallic iron and any ferric oxide, which has escaped reduction, or which has been reoxidised by exposure to air or water; and it may well be supposed that, consequent to the galvanic current thus produced, the atmospheric oxygen dissolved in water is ozonised, and caused to act as a powerful oxidising agent in organic matter.\"", "We extract the tables on the next page from the Sixth Report of the Royal Commission on Rivers' Pollution. The Commissioners, we may here state, speak in high terms of this filter.", "4.= The so-called MAGNETIC CARBIDE OF IRON FILTER. In this, the filtering material is said to be prepared by heating hæmatite with sawdust. This filter has a good repute.", "[asterism] The Royal Commission \"on Rivers Pollution\" strongly recommend filters of animal charcoal to be recharged every three to six months, \"since they found that myriads of minute worms were developed in the animal charcoal, and passed out with the water when these filters were used for Thames water, and when the charcoal was not renewed at sufficiently short intervals.\"", "_Cleansing of Filters._--Every two or three months (according to the kind of water) air should be blown through, and if the charcoal be in the block form it should be brushed. Then four to six ounces of the pharmacop[oe]ial solution of potassium permanganate, or twenty to thirty grains of the solid permanganate in a quart of distilled water, and ten drops of strong sulphuric acid, should be poured through, and subsequently a quarter to half an ounce of pure hydrochloric acid in two to four gallons of distilled water. This plan would be useful on foreign stations where the filter cannot be sent home, or taken to pieces; if it can be taken to pieces, the charcoal should be spread out in a thin layer, and exposed for some time to air or sun, or heated in an oven.", "_The Average Composition of Thames Water, before and after Filtration through Spongy Iron._", "------------------+---------------------------------------------------------- | Dissolved Matters. |---------+-------+---------+--------+-----------+--------- Description. | Total |Organic| Organic |Ammonia.| Nitrogen, | Total | solid |carbon.|nitrogen.| |as nitrates|combined |impurity.| | | | and |nitrogen. | | | | | nitrites. | ------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+-----------+--------- As delivered from | | | | | | Chelsea | | | | | | Waterworks | 28·04 | ·198 | ·042 | ·0009 | ·117 | ·220 The same water | | | | | | filtered through | | | | | | spongy iron | 16·8 | ·069 | ·018 | ·019 | ·018 | ·049 ------------------+---------+-------+---------+--------+-----------+--------- The mean of the | | | | | | 14th and 15th | | | | | | taken after the | | | | | | spongy iron | | | | | | filter had been | | | | | | in operation in | | | | | | the Rivers | | | | | | Commission | | | | | | Laboratory for | | | | | | upwards of eight | | | | | | months.[305] As | | | | | | supplied from | | | | | | Waterworks | 24·47 | ·170 | ·055 | ·001 | ·098 | ·154 After filtration | | | | | | through spongy | | | ", "---------------+------------------------------------------------------------- | Dissolved Matters. +---------+---------+-------------------------------+--------- | | | Hardness. | | | +----------+----------+---------+ Description. |Previous |Chlorine.|Temporary.|Permanent.| Total. | No. of | Sewage | | | | | samples |or Animal| | | | |analysed. |contamin-| | | | | | ation. | | | | | ---------------+---------+---------+----------+----------+---------+--------- As delivered | | | | | | from Chelsea | | | | | | Waterworks | 1·464 | 2·01 | 15·5 | 6·2 | 21·7 | 15 The same | | | | | | filtered | | | | | | through | | | | | | spongy iron | ·177 | 2·00 | 6·8 | 4·9 | 11·7 | 15 ---------------+---------+---------+----------+----------+---------+--------- The mean of the| | | | |Analysis | 14th and 15th | | | | | of the | samples taken | | | | | 15th | after the | | | | | sample. | spongy iron | | | | | | filters had | | | | | | been in | | | | | | operation in | | | | | | the Rivers | | | | | | Commission | | | | | | Laboratory for| | | | | | upwards ", "[Footnote 305: The figures demonstrate that the purifying action of spongy iron, if at all altered, has been _increased_, as regards the most important impurities of water, viz., nitrogenous matters and hardness.]", "If sponges are at all used, they should be removed from time to time, and thoroughly washed in hot water.[306]", "[Footnote 306: Parkes 'Practical Hygiene.']", "Oils are filtered, on the small scale, through cotton-wool, or unsized paper, arranged in a funnel; and on the large scale, through long bags, made of tweeled cotton-cloth (Canton flannel). These bags are usually made about 12 or 15 inches in diameter, and from 4 to 8 feet long (see _engr._), and are inclosed in bottomless casings, or bags of coarse canvas, about 5 to 6 or 8 inches in diameter, for the purpose of condensing a great extent of filtering surface into the smallest possible space. A number of these double bags (from 1 to 50 or 60) are connected with corresponding holes in the bottom of a block-tin or tinned-copper cistern, into which the oil to be filtered is poured. The mode in which these bags are fastened to the cistern is of the utmost importance, as on the joint being close and secure depends the integrity of the apparatus. Three methods of doing this are figured in the engraving, which, with the references, will explain themselves, the same letters referring to the same parts of each.", "Cotton filtering-bag, '_creased_,' or enclosed in its canvas envelope, ready for fixing.]", "The second of the above arrangements is the least expensive, and certainly the most convenient in practice; and when the cylinder _l_ fits the hole closely (allowing for the bag), is as safe, or safer, than an ordinary screw.", "_a._ Bottom of cistern. _b._ Filtering-bag. _c._ Screw of the conical nozzle fitting into the cistern. _d._ Binding cord connecting bag and nozzle. _e._ Binding cord connecting bag and lower nozzle. _f._ Bayonet-catch, connecting the lower portion of the nozzle fastened to the bag with the upper and fixed part, _g_. _i._ The thick hem at the top of the bag (purposely made large by enclosing a piece of thick cord therein), resting on the shoulders, _k_. _l._ A metallic cylinder, loosely fitting the hole in the cistern, and over which the top of the bag is drawn, before being put into its place; when fitted, as in the engraving, it retains the hem _i_ securely in its place above the shoulder _k_.]", "The bags are surrounded by a wooden screen fitted up with doors for the purpose of keeping off the dust; and the bottom of the apartment is furnished with large steam-pipes, by which a proper temperature may be kept up in cold weather. The use of heat should, however, never be had recourse to when it can be avoided, as although it vastly increases the rate of filtration, the oil so filtered is more apt to become opaque in cold weather than when the process is conducted at the natural temperature of the atmosphere. This is particularly the case with castor oil and sperm oil. In the United States of America, where the latter is consumed in enormous quantities for illumination, the best is always 'winter strained,' as it is popularly called. In practice, it is more convenient to have a number of small cisterns at work (say 50 or 100 galls. each), than one or two larger ones, as any accident that may occur is more easily remedied, and that without stopping the whole operation.", "When cotton-cloth bags are employed without being 'creased,' or enclosed in others of canvas, they should not be longer than about 3 or 4 feet, and not wider than about 5 or 6 inches when filled. When larger they are dangerous.", "A convenient method of filtering a single cask of oil is, to insert the pipe of a two-way patent filter into the cork-hole, by which means the whole will be filtered as drawn off, without any trouble on the part of the operator. This filter consists of a porous bag stretched over a perforated metallic vessel, nearly the shape and size of the exterior casing, and its edge is tightly screwed between the sides and bottom of the latter, so as to be quite water-tight. The cock communicates with the interior of the perforated plate and filter, and the supply-pipe with the exterior. By this means the interior chamber, which occupies 5/6ths of the vessel, rapidly fills with filtered oil, and continues full as long as any liquor remains in the cask. This arrangement is also well adapted to the filtration of wines, beer, cordials, porter, and various other liquors. It is unequalled in simplicity and usefulness. The same filter may be removed from cask to cask, with the facility of a common cock.", "The filtration of SYRUPS is now generally effected on the large scale by passing them through the 'CREASED BAG FILTER' just described. On the small scale, as employed by confectioners and druggists, they are usually passed through CONICAL FLANNEL BAGS. (See page 726.) The filtration of thick syrups is, however, attended with some difficulty, and it is therefore a good plan to filter them in a somewhat dilute state, and afterwards to reduce them to a proper consistence by evaporation in clean vessels of tinned copper, by steam heat. Syrups, when filtered in a heated state, run well for a time, but the pores of the fabric rapidly get choked, from the thickening of the syrup and partial crystallization of the sugar, occasioned by the evaporation of the aqueous portion from the surface of the bag. This may be partially prevented by enclosing the bag in a metallic casing. On the whole clarification is preferable for syrups to filtration on the small scale. They need only be well beaten up while cold with a little white of egg, and then heated; a scum rises, which must be removed as soon as it becomes consistent, and the skimming continued until the liquid becomes clear. Any floating portions of scum that may have escaped notice are easily removed by running the syrup through a coarse flannel strainer, whilst hot. The most extensive application of the process of filtration in the arts is in the refining of sugars.", "TINCTURES AND DILUTE SPIRITS are usually filtered, on the small scale, through BIBULOUS or UNSIZED PAPER placed on a funnel; and on the large scale, through thin and fine COTTON BAGS. In general, however, tinctures clarify themselves by the subsidence of the suspended matter, when allowed to repose for a few days. Hence it is the bottoms alone that require filtering; the supernatant clear portion need only be run through a small hair sieve, a piece of tow or cotton placed in the throat of a funnel, or some other coarse medium, to remove any floating substances, as pieces of straw, &c. Spirits which are largely loaded with essential oil, as those of ANISEED, &c., run rapidly through paper or calico, but usually require the addition of a spoonful or two of magnesia before they will flow quite clear. When possible, tinctures, spirits, and all similar volatile fluids, are better and more economically cleared by subsidence or clarification than by filtration, as, in the latter way, a portion is lost by evaporation, and the strength of the liquid is thereby altered.", "Vegetable juices should be allowed to deposit their feculous portion before filtration. The supernatant liquid will then be often found quite clear. It is only when this is not the case that filtration should be had recourse to. A small quantity may be filtered through coarse or woollen filtering paper, supported on a piece of coarse calico placed on a funnel; when the quantity is large, one of the CONICAL BAGS before described should be employed. The bottoms from which the clear portion has been decanted should be placed on a separate filter, or else not added until the whole of the other portion has drained through. Vegetable juices are often rendered clear by simply heating them to about 180° or 200° Fahr., by which their albumen is coagulated; they are also frequently clarified by the addition of a little white of egg and heat, in the same way as syrups. Many of them (as those of hemlock, henbane, aconite, &c.) are greatly injured by heat, and must consequently be filtered, or only simply decanted after repose. In all cases they should be exposed to the air as little as possible, as they rapidly suffer decomposition.", "Vegetable infusions and decoctions may be cleared by defecation followed by filtration. The conical bags of flannel before described are usually employed for this purpose. When the liquid is to be evaporated to an extract, they are commonly suspended by a hook over the evaporating pan. A convenient method of straining these fluids, practised in the laboratory, is to stretch a square of flannel on a frame or 'horse,' securing it at the corners by pieces of string. (See _engr._) Such a frame, laid across the mouth of a pan, is more easily fed with fresh liquid than a bag, whose mouth is 40 or 50 inches higher. The same purpose, for small quantities of liquid, is effected by laying the flannel across the mouth of a coarse hair sieve. The concentrated infusions and decoctions being usually weak tinctures, may be filtered in the same way as the latter. (See _above_.) Many vegetable solutions, that from the viscidity of the suspended matter can scarcely be filtered, may be readily clarified with white of egg in the cold, or pass the filter rapidly if a very small quantity of acetic, tartaric, sulphuric, or other strong acid, is previously added.", "Corrosive liquids, as the STRONG ACIDS, are filtered through powdered glass, or SILICEOUS SAND, supported on pebbles in the throat of a glass funnel, or through asbestos or gun-cotton placed in the same manner. Charcoal has also been employed for the same purpose, but is not fit for some acids. Strong caustic alkaline lyes are also filtered through powdered glass or sand. Weak alkaline lyes may be filtered through fine calico, stretched across the mouth of a funnel. Many corrosive liquids, as solution of potassa, &c., require to be excluded from the air during filtration. The simplest apparatus that can be employed for this purpose is that figured in the margin:--(_a_) is a globular bottle fitted with the ground stopper (_d_), and having a perforated neck (_f_) ground to the bottle (_b_); (_c_) is a small tube, wrapped round with as much asbestos, linen, or calico, as is required to make it fit the under neck of the bottle through which it passes. The tube (_c_) may also be fixed by placing pebbles and powdered glass or sand round it, as before mentioned. For use, the solution to be filtered is poured into the bottle (_a_) nearly as high as the top of the tube (_c_), and the stopper is replaced. The liquid then descends into (_b_), and a similar quantity of air passes up the tube into (_a_). LIQUOR POTASSÆ may be always obtained fine by depuration in close vessels, when the sediment of lime only need be filtered, which may be effected with calico fixed across the mouth of a funnel.", "When a precipitate, or the suspended matter in a liquid, is the object of the filtration, the filter should be of such a nature that the powder may be easily separated from it, when dry, and that with the least loss possible. Linen filters are for this reason preferable for large quantities, and those of smooth bibulous paper for small ones. The powder should be washed down the sides of the filter, and collected, by means of a small stream of water, in one spot at the bottom, assisting the operation with a camel-hair pencil; and, when the whole is dry, it should be swept off the paper or cloth with a similar pencil or brush, and not removed by a knife, as is commonly done, when it can be possibly avoided.", "The 'first runnings' of liquid from a filter are commonly foul, and are pumped back or returned until the fluid runs perfectly limpid and transparent, when it is 'turned into' the 'filtered liquor cistern,' or proper receiver. In many cases the liquid does not readily become transparent by simply passing through the filter; hence has arisen the use of FILTERING POWDERS, or substances which rapidly choke up the pores of the media in a sufficient degree to make the fluid pass clear. In the employment of these powders care should be taken that they are not in too fine a state of division, nor used in larger quantities than are absolutely necessary, as they are apt to choke up the filter, and to absorb a large quantity of the liquid. The less filtering powder used, the more rapid will be the progress of the filtration, and the longer will be the period during which the apparatus will continue in effective action. For some liquids these substances are employed for the double purpose of decolouring or whitening, as well as rendering them transparent. In such cases it is preferable first to pass the fluid through a layer of the substance in coarse powder, from which it will 'run' but slightly contaminated into the filter; or, if the powder is mixed with the whole body of the liquid, as in bleaching almond oil, &c., to pass the mixture through some coarser medium to remove the cruder portion before allowing it to run into the filter. Another plan is, after long agitation and subsequent repose, to decant the clearer portion from the grosser sediment, and to employ separate filters for the two. Granulated animal charcoal is used according to the first method, to decolour syrups, oils, &c.; and filtering powder by the second and third, to remove a portion of the colour, and to clarify castor and other oils. The common plan of mixing large quantities of filtering powder with castor oil, and throwing the whole into the filter, as adopted by the druggists, is injudicious. When si", "It is often of great advantage to render a filter 'self-acting,' or to construct it in such a way that it may 'feed itself,' so that it may continue full and at work without the constant attention of the operator. On the small scale, this may be readily effected on the principle of the common fountain lamp (see _engr._); and on the large scale, by placing the vessel containing the unfiltered liquid on a higher level than the filter, and by having the end of the supply-pipe fitted with a ball-cock, to keep the liquid in the filter constantly at the same height.", "The rapidity of filtration depends upon--the porosity of the filtering medium--the extent of the filtering surface--the relative viscidity or mobility of the filtering liquid--the pressure or force by which the liquid is impelled through the pores of the filter, and--the porosity and fineness of the substances it holds in suspension. The most efficient filter is produced when the first two or the first three are so graduated to the others that liquid filters rapidly, and is at the same time rendered perfectly transparent.", "In the common method of filtration no pressure is exerted beyond that of the weight of the column of the liquid resting on the filtering medium, but in some cases additional pressure is employed. This is had recourse to for the purpose of producing a more rapid filtration, and more especially for filtering liquids that, from their viscidity, will scarcely pass through the pores of substances sufficiently fine to remove their impurities in the ordinary way.", "One of the easiest means of employing pressure in filtration is to increase the height of the column of the filtering liquid. From the peculiar properties of fluids, by which they transmit pressure in an equal degree in all directions, this column need not be of equal diameter throughout, but may be conveniently contracted to the size of a small pipe, as in the accompanying engraving, which represents a small filter on this construction at work. (_a_) Is the funnel or reservoir of foul liquid; (_b_) a small pipe conveying the liquid to the filter; (_c c_) a chamber, of which the upper portion (_d_) is filled with the descending liquid, and the lower portion (_e_) with the filtering media; (_i i_) are screws by which the bottom plate is fastened on, which plate is removed to clean out or renew the filter. For use, the cocks (_k_) and (_l_) are closed, and the liquid poured into the funnel (_a_); the cock (_k_) is next opened, and, in a few minutes after, the cock (_l_), when an uninterrupted flow of filtered liquor will be obtained as long as any fluid remains in the funnel (_a_) and the tube (_b_). The length of the tube determines the degree of pressure. Care must be taken first to pass the foul liquid through a hair sieve, or some other strainer, to remove any substance that might choke up the pipe (_b_).", "Another method of employing pressure in filtration is the withdrawal of the air from the receiving vessel, as in the vacuum filter, by which a pressure of about 14-1/2 lbs. to the square inch becomes exerted on the surface of the liquid by the atmosphere. The vacuum in the receiving vessel may be produced by the air-pump, by steam, or by the Bunsen or Sprengel pump.", "A commoner method of applying pressure than either of those already mentioned is to condense the air over the surface of the liquid by means of a forcing-pump, or by steam.", "On the small scale, pressure may be applied to filtration by means of a syphon, whose shorter leg has its mouth blown into the shape of a bell or funnel, over which filtering paper or fine calico may be stretched.", "The application of pressure to filtration is not always advantageous, and beyond a certain limit is generally attended with inconvenience, if not with absolute disadvantage. It is found in practice that fluids under pressure take a longer period to run clear than without pressure, and that ruptures of the media more frequently take place in the former case, or with pressure, than in the latter. Great pressure is in no case advantageous.", "The filters already noticed are those that act by the fluid descending through the media; but in some cases the reverse method is employed, and the liquid filters upwards, instead of downwards. These are called ascending filters, and are often preferable to those on the descending principle, because the suspended matters that require removal by filtration usually sink, and thus a portion escapes being forced into the pores of the filter. They are also more convenient when pressure is employed. The construction depends upon the same principles as the common filter, and merely requires that the feeding vessel should be higher than the upper surface of the filtering media. OILS are conveniently filtered in this way, because of their little specific gravity. By fixing a small filter on this principle into the head of a cask, and pouring in water through a funnel, whose neck reaches nearly to the bottom of the cask, the oil will float up and pass the filter, leaving the sediment behind. In cold weather hot water may be employed.", "_a._ Cask of oil. _b._ Stand. _c._ Funnel for water. _d._ Filter.]", "In some cases the upward and downward systems of filtration are united in the same apparatus, and this plan is advantageous where the space for operating is limited. For this purpose it is merely necessary to connect the bottom of an ascending filter with the top of a descending one, or the reverse; the proper pressure being in either case applied.", "Filtration, the Laws of.= The 'Revue Universelle des Mines,' 1874, pp. 469, 551 contains a paper by M. Paul Havre recording his investigations on the rapidity of the filtration of water through sand, wool, &c., which resulted in ascertaining and measuring the influences which may modify the flow of water. In all cases of filtration, the influences which are exerted are:--the pressure and temperature of the water, the thickness of the filtering medium, compression in the case of fibrous filters, the size of the grains and their mixture in the case of a filtering medium analogous to sand. The influence of obstruction, due to the dirtiness of the filter, depends on circumstances too variable to be taken into account. The delivery of a filter per square mètre per 24 hours is equal to two cubic mètres multiplied by the pressure of water in mètres, divided by the thickness of the filtering medium in mètres. An application of this formula is made to existing filter beds, including those at Southwark and at the Chelsea waterworks.", "The first experiments for ascertaining the influence of a head of water on the delivery led to the following results:--The delivery increases in a higher ratio than the square root of the pressure, due to the height (TORRECELLI'S LAW); the delivery increases in direct ratio to the height of the column of water above the filter, admitting a previous initial delivery, due solely to the pressure of water above the filter; the co-efficient of the increase of delivery is constant, and in this case of a filtering substance 8·662 inches (22 centimètres) thick, is equal to 0·106 pint (6 centilitres) for sand to 0·528 pint (30 centilitres) for compressed wool, and to 0·792 pints (45 centilitres) for wool only slightly compressed.", "The subsequent experiments were made with graduated transparent cylinders, 3·28 feet (1 mètre) high, with the ends perfectly level, the filtering substances being kept in place by a thick double cloth tied tightly under the bottom of the tube. This apparatus presented no other obstacle to the running of the water than the layer of filtering substance; it permitted experiments to be made at all temperatures, and the thickness of the filtering medium to be measured exactly.", "In these experiments sand is 'taken as the type of pulverulent substances,' but an unexpected difficulty was encountered in the settling or partial agglomeration of the large and small grains of the unsifted sand, thus diminishing the delivery of water to one half, one third, and ultimately to one fifth of its previous volume. This led to the adoption of sand--the grains of which were uniform in size, and to the discovery of the fact that, other tissues being equal, the resistance of filtration is constant when the sand is coarse, when the grains of fine sand are of nearly equal size, and when there is but little fine sand mixed with the coarse. From experiments in filtering through a layer of coarse sand approximately 4 inches (10 centimètres) thick, it was found that the higher the temperature the more rapid was the delivery, and by filtering through a layer of coarser sand 11·8 inches (30 centimètres) thick, the conclusion was arrived at that the temperature exerts an influence in proportion to the thickness of the layer.", "See AIR-PUMP, BUNSEN'S WATER-AIR PUMP; CLARIFICATION; DEFECATION; FININGS, &c.", "FI'NINGS.= Substances used by publicans, brewers, wine merchants, &c., to clarify their liquors.", "_Prep._ 1. (BREWER'S FININGS; COOPER'S F.) Isinglass (finely shredded), 1 lb., and sour beer or cider or vinegar, 3 or 4 pints, are macerated together, and more of the sour liquor added as the isinglass swells, until about a gallon has been used, agitation with a whisk or a small bundle of twigs being occasionally had recourse to, for the purpose of promoting the solution. As soon as the whole of the isinglass is dissolved, the mixture is reduced to the consistence of thin syrup, with weak mild beer, or cider, or any other liquid that the finings are intended for. The whole is next strained through a tammy cloth or a hair sieve, and at once reduced to a proper state of dilution, by the addition of more liquor. _Product_, 6-1/2 to 7 galls. \"A pound of good isinglass will make about 12 galls. of finings.\" (Ure.) Used to clarify fermented liquors, especially beer. 1 to 1-1/2 pint is the usual dose for a barrel of ale or porter; and a quart for a hogshead of cider or wine.", "2. (SPIRIT FININGS.)--_a._ Alum (ord. cryst.), 1 lb.; powder, and divide it into 12 equal portions, which are to be separately wrapped in blue paper, and marked No. 1. Next take of carbonate of soda (sesquicarbonate of the shops), 6 oz.; divide this as the last, wrap it in white paper, and mark each parcel No. 2. Keeps dry anywhere.", "_b._ From alum, 1 lb.; salt of tartar (dry), 1/4 lb.; proceed as before. The white papers containing the salt of tartar must be kept in a dry, well-corked, wide-mouthed bottle or jar. Both of the last two are used to clarify gin and cordials. The contents of one of the blue papers are dissolved in about a pint of hot water, and the resulting solution is well 'rummaged up' with the liquor. A solution of the contents of one of the white papers, in about 1/2 pint of hot water, is then added, and the agitation continued for some minutes longer; after which the cask is 'bunged' close and the whole allowed to repose until the next day. This is sufficient for a barrel (say 30 to 36 galls.), but many persons use double the quantity. The effect is not only to clarify, but also to 'blanch' the liquor.", "_Obs._ Good liquors, either fermented or spirituous, need no artificial 'fining,' as they always clarify themselves by repose. With those, however, which are out of 'condition,' or of inferior quality, it is often necessary, as, without such a proceeding, they remain unsaleable. This is particularly the case with malt liquor. \"Attempts to clarify it in the cask seldom fail to do harm. The only thing that can be used with advantage for fining foul or muddy beer is isinglass.\" (Ure.) The disadvantages resulting from the artificial clarification of fermented liquors are--that they do not afterwards 'stand well on draught,' that much of the conservative astringent matter which they contain is precipitated with the 'finings,' that their piquancy and flavour is more or less diminished, and that they are more than usually liable to become flat and vapid, whether in cask or bottle. The larger the proportion of 'finings' used, the more marked are their injurious effects, and the shorter the interval which elapses before the accession of the several symptoms referred to. We have seen the most disastrous consequences follow the injudicious use of 'finings,' more especially in respect to those liquors in which a certain amount of piquancy, astringency, and briskness, is an essential condition. In one instance which came under our notice upwards of 30 barrels of 'underground' (a very strong old ale) was thus reduced in value to less than 1-3rd its original cost; and in another, a large bottled stock of the 'finest old Burton' was found to be utterly unsaleable. In both cases the 'spoiled liquor' was got rid of by mixing it in and selling it with 3d. and 4d. beer.", "Liquors which 'refuse to fine' or become clear, when treated with 'finings' in the usual manner, are called 'stubborn' by coopers and cellarmen. See BREWING, GIN, MALT, LIQUORS, WINES, &c.", "FIRE.= The calamities resulting from this destructive agent are of such frequent occurrence, as to justly claim a notice of the subject here. The causes of fires are numerous, and of a varied character, and, in most instances, difficult to determine, because it is the interest of those concerned to suppress all evidence connected with the matter. Accident, that convenient word given to the imaginary hack to which so many fires are referred, if truthfully interpreted, will, in general, be found to be equivalent to carelessness, recklessness, or guilt. We believe that there are few fires which have happened that might not have been prevented by the exercise of common prudence, and that a vast number have been caused by direct negligence, arising from sheer laziness and indifference, to use no harsher terms. As familiar instances, may be mentioned--allowing sparks to fall on the ground and remain there without extinguishing them; carrying a naked candle into rooms containing inflammable substances; smoking carelessly and in dangerous places, as workshops, warehouses, on shipboard, &c.; keeping instantaneous light matches in improper places, and neglecting to pick up those that may happen to fall on the ground, &c. &c. The list might easily be extended, but we believe every reflecting reader can do so for himself. The great increase in the number of fires since the introduction of lucifer matches, and the almost general use of tobacco, cannot fail to have attracted the attention of every one. The danger of matches falling about might be avoided by the use of those which can only be ignited by rubbing them on the prepared surface of the box. These 'safety matches' are coming into general use, and must eventually supersede all the more dangerous kinds.", "The late Mr Braidwood classes the causes of fires under the following heads:--1. Inattention in the use of fires and lights. 2. Improper construction of buildings, &c. 3. Furnaces or close fires, for heating buildings, or for mechanical purposes. 4. Spontaneous ignition. 5. Incendiarism.", "Amongst many other causes of fire, too numerous to specify, may be noticed--incautiously approaching window- and bed-curtains with a candle or lamp, airing linen before the fire, allowing children to play with fire, women's dresses taking fire, and taking off the burning coals from a fire and laying them on the hearth. Another very common cause of fire is covering up a fire-place when not in use with wood, or paper and canvas, &c. The soot falls either from the flue itself or an adjoining one into the grate; a neighbouring chimney takes fire, a spark from this falls down the blocked-up flue, ignites the soot in the grate, which smoulders until the covering is burnt through, and thus sets the building on fire.", "Another cause of fire, and one which cannot be too strongly condemned, is the dangerous practice of reading in bed by candle-light. A very serious annual loss of property is also caused by want of proper care in hanging up or removing the goods in linendrapers' shop windows when the gas is burning. Another frequent cause of fire is the employment of young children in lighting fires, from their propensity to play with flame.", "The employment of close fires with brick flues is also a frequent source of danger. Frequently, from various causes, the furnace almost always cracks, thus giving egress to smoke and flame. When this occurs no time should be lost in thoroughly repairing the defect, or building a new furnace; merely plastering over the surface will be found an ineffective and dangerous remedy.", "To guard against the dangers arising from the ignition of wearing apparel many methods have been suggested for rendering fabrics flame proof, all of them consisting in soaking the dress in a weak solution of a non-inflammable substance, such as chloride of zinc, alum, tungstate of sodium, sulphate of ammonia, &c. Of these alum has the advantage of greatly improving the appearance of the fabrics, especially if they be coloured.", "Fire-guards, particularly where there are children, ought to be adopted much more generally than they appear to be.", "_Prev._ This consists of the exercise of those ordinary precautions which the good sense of every careful and trustworthy man, be he taskmaster or servant, cannot fail to suggest. It would be useless to enumerate them.", "Immediately on the fire being discovered, secure an alarm being given to the nearest of the fire escape stations, not delaying an instant; do not wait \"to see if it is wanted.\" Life is more valuable than property, and events have often proved how fatal even a moment's hesitation is in sending for the fire-escape.[307]", "[Footnote 307: 'Handbook for Emergencies,' Cassell.]", "The late Mr Braidwood's advice was, \"that if the fire appears at all serious, and there are fire-engines within a reasonable distance, that it is best to wait until they arrive; many buildings have been destroyed from opening doors, and trying to extinguish fires with insufficient means. If no engines are within reach it is advisable to keep a hand-pump. If that is not to be had, the next best thing is to collect as many buckets outside the room on fire as can be obtained, keeping the door shut; then to creep into the room on hands and knees (if the heat and smoke are considerable), and throw the water as nearly in the direction of the fire as possible, keeping the door shut while more water is being collected.", "\"The police of the metropolis understand shutting up fires so well, that they have in many instances kept fires two or three miles distant from the engine-stations, shut up till the fireman arrived in time to extinguish them.\"", "Fires might often be readily extinguished when first discovered by the timely application of a few buckets of water. When an apartment is found to be on fire, the door, chimney, and windows should be immediately closed, if possible, and only opened for the purpose of projecting water on the flames. By this means the supply of air will be cut off, and rapid combustion prevented. The same applies to the lower doors and windows of a house (especially the shop window), which are often injudiciously kept open or removed, under the pretence of rendering assistance. The neglect of this precaution has often caused a mere smouldering fire, that might have been easily put out, to burst into an unextinguishable mass of flame.", "It has been proposed at various times to make certain additions to the water used for the purpose of extinguishing fires, in order to render its action more certain and effective. It is found that sal ammoniac (5 oz. to the gall.) exerts this property in a remarkable degree. Several other articles, as common salt, pearlash, and kitchen soda, act in the same way, though less effectively. A few buckets of such water will speedily arrest the progress of a fire before it has much extended itself. Such a plan is easily applied, by adding the saline matter to the buckets of water, which are either used by hand, or to feed the engine for the first few minutes of its working. When, however, a fire has made much progress, the action of such substances becomes scarcely perceptible.", "Chimneys on fire are readily extinguished in several ways, without having recourse to throwing water down them from the top, by which much damage is frequently done to the furniture in the rooms. One of the simplest methods is, to cautiously scatter a handful of flowers of sulphur over the dullest part of the burning coals; the sulphurous vapours, being incapable of supporting combustion, rapidly extinguish the flames. Another method is, to shut the doors and windows, and to stop up the bottom of the chimney with a piece of wet carpet or blanket, throwing a little water or flowers of sulphur, or even common salt, on the fire immediately before doing so. By this means the draught is stopped, and the burning soot extinguished for want of air. In many of the first-class houses recently erected, 'fire-place shutters' are provided, which, when partly drawn down, act as powerful bellows or 'blowers' and which, when wholly drawn down, so as to touch the hearth-stone, entirely close up the fireplace, and instantly extinguish the combustion of the fuel in the grate, or that of the soot in the chimney. This simple arrangement, the advantages of which were pointed out in an early edition of this work, renders fires in chimneys of little moment, as it is only necessary to draw down the shutter to put them out. If a chimney is stopped at top, instead of at the bottom, the whole of the smoke must, of necessity, be driven into the apartment.", "In France, M. Marateuh has successfully applied the principle of Davy's safety lamp for the prevention of fires in chimneys. He places fire-frames of iron work near the base of the chimney, one above the other, about one foot apart; no flame passes through them, whilst the draught in the chimney is not interfered with, the result being that no fire can happen in the chimney.", "Escape from apartments on fire may be best effected by creeping on the hands and knees. In this way the window or door may be reached. It is found that the atmosphere of a room so full of smoke as to produce suffocation to a person standing upright, may generally be safely breathed on nearly a level with the floor. A damp cloth, or handkerchief, tied over the mouth and nostrils, or, still better, over the whole face and head, will enable a person to effect a passage through the densest smoke, and, in many cases, to escape from buildings on fire, when otherwise it would be impracticable. Should descent by the staircase be found impossible, then the window should be immediately sought, and a ladder or fire-escape waited for. In the absence of either, if the danger is imminent, a rope should be made by tying the sheets and blankets of the bed together, one end of which should be firmly secured to a chair or table, or preferably to one of the bed-posts, and with this apparatus descent should be cautiously attempted. Jumping out of the window should be avoided, as persons who have not been brought up as clowns, or harlequins, run just as much danger in performing such an exploit as they do by remaining in the burning building. When it is impossible to escape from a burning building by the stairs or windows, retreat may be sometimes secured by a trap door opening on to the roof, or by a skylight, when, unless it be an isolated house, the roof of one of the adjoining buildings may probably be gained with safety.", "Fire-escapes of various kinds have been employed of late years in the metropolis, and have proved of the greatest value in rescuing persons from burning buildings.", "It is said that there is no instance on record of a person being burnt to death in a dwelling-house in Edinburgh, where the houses are usually high; yet in London, where fire-engines and fire-escapes are provided in greater numbers, deaths are very frequent from this cause. The reason of this difference is, that in the former city the stairs are all made of stone, by which means a road of escape is secured.", "The clothes of females and children, when on fire, may be most readily extinguished by rolling the sufferer in the carpet, hearth-rug, table-cover, a great-coat, cloak, or any other woollen article at hand. If this be expertly done, the flames may be rapidly put out, unless the skirts of the dress be distended by hoops or crinoline, when there is great difficulty in staying the progress of the flames. Should assistance not be at hand, the person whose clothes are on fire should throw herself on the ground, and roll the carpet round her, as before described; or if such a thing is not in the room, she should endeavour to extinguish the flames with her hands, and by rapidly rolling over and over on the floor. In this way the fire will be stifled, or at least the combustion will proceed so slowly that less personal injury will be experienced before assistance arrives. The advantage of assuming the horizontal position is manifest from the fact that nine times out of ten it is the lower parts of the dresses of females that first catch fire.[308]", "[Footnote 308: For the mode of rendering muslin and other inflammable articles of ladies' apparel fire-proof, see INCOMBUSTIBLE FABRICS.]", "The extinction of fires on board ships by means of carbonic-acid gas was some years since suggested to the Admiralty by Mr J. R. Hancorn. He proposes that a simple and economical apparatus should be attached to every decked vessel capable of supplying this gas, which is a well-known non-supporter of combustion, and will extinguish fire at the very instant of coming in contact with the burning matter. Chalk with sulphuric acid diluted with water (vinegar with any other acid will do) yields 44% of the gas; hence, a ton of chalk, and a fourth part of that quantity of sulphuric acid, will be found sufficient to extinguish any fire on board a ship. Mr Hancorn also proposed this as a method of destroying vermin in ships, such as rats and cockroaches, for which purpose it is more easily applied and more effectual than that usually adopted. This plan was rejected by the Admiralty, from a fear that the destructive action of the gas might extend to the crew as well as the fire. But \"it surely is possible by mechanical means to expel the gas before again entering the ship's hold. At any rate, the grand point would be obtained of extinguishing the fire, though the crew might have only the deck to stand on.\"", "_Precautions to be taken against a Fire amongst Farming Stock._--The following are the suggestions of Mr Beaumont, the secretary of the County Fire Office:--", "\"Forbid your men to use lucifer matches, to smoke or light pipes or cigars, destroy wasp nests, or fire off guns in or near the rickyard, or to throw hot cinders into or against any wooden out-building on the farm, on pain of instant dismissal.", "\"Place your ricks in a single line, and as far distant from each other as you conveniently can. Place hayricks and cornstacks alternately; the hayrick will check the progress of the fire. Keep the rickyard, and especially the spaces between the stacks and ricks, clear of all loose straw, and in all respects in a neat and clean state. The loose straw is more frequently the means of firing than the stack itself. Have a pond close to the rickyard, although there may be a bad supply of water. When a steam thrashing machine is to be used, place it on the lee-side of the stack or barn, so that the wind may blow the sparks away from the stacks. Let the engine be placed as far from the machine as the length of the strap will allow. Have the loose straw continually cleared away from the engine; see that two or three pails of water are kept close to the ashpan, and that the pan itself is kept constantly full of water.\"", "It is often difficult to get horses out of buildings on fire, but it is said that they will readily come out if, after being blindfolded, the saddle and bridle, or the harness, &c., to which they are accustomed, are thrown over them as usual.", "We learn from the last report issued by Captain Shaw that the actual number of fires in the year 1877 in London was 1533. Of these fires 1374, or 90 per cent., were slight, no persons being endangered, and no considerable destruction of property taking place. The number of really serious conflagrations was 150; in 88 of these life was endangered, and in 24 cases there was loss of life. The actual number of persons whose lives were in danger was 165; but of these 136 were saved, and the lives eventually lost amounted only to 29. The smallness of the loss is due in great degree to the courage of the members of the Brigade, seven of whom have been commended for special efforts for saving life during the year. Even of the twenty-nine persons who perished fourteen were taken alive out of the burning buildings, and died in hospital of their wounds. It is very satisfactory in view of the vast height of buildings used in business, and the flimsy character of so many London houses, that the risk of death from fire should be so small. It is one of the very slightest risks to which we are exposed in modern London. The fire-escapes must of course be credited with much of this security. There are now 108 stations of these useful machines; and instances of their utility in rescuing the inmates of burning houses are constantly occurring.", "The various tables which Captain Shaw appends to his report give some very curious details as to the character of London fires. The hours at which they most commonly break out are by no means those which are popularly supposed to be the most dangerous. No considerable proportion occur after people have gone to bed. From seven o'clock in the evening till eleven o'clock there are more alarms of fire than in an equal portion of the twenty-four hours. Not a third of the number which occur in these evening hours take place in the small hours of the morning, which are in fact less destructive than the same period in the afternoon. There are, moreover, in the detailed list of fires some curious statistics, illustrating the comparative security of private houses over places of business. A very large part of the half million houses in London must come under the description of private dwellings, yet the alarms of fire in this class of buildings were only 316 in the year, and only in five of those were there serious conflagrations. In the lists of business premises nearly every trade in the metropolis is mentioned; and next to houses let out in lodgings, public-houses seem to suffer most. The causes of fires tell the old story of carelessness. They were instances of the almost inconceivable folly of seeking for an escape of gas with a lighted candle. The throwing down of lights is responsible for a considerable number of fires. Ordinary cases of chimneys on fire are not included in Captain Shaw's summary; but they give the brigade a good deal of work. The number of calls of this kind was 3744, of which 1256 proved to be false alarms. The number of these false alarms will probably be reduced when the stations at which men with hose are situated are more numerous.", "Fire Anni'hilator (Phillips's).= This is essentially a gaseous fire engine, which at any moment can be made to discharge a stream of mixed gases and vapours having the power of checking combustion. When first introduced it was generally regarded as a most important invention, but it has not proved an effective substitute for the common water engine. For extinguishing fires on board ship and in close apartments it is undoubtedly well adapted, but as a street engine it is comparatively useless, owing to the unmanageable nature of its fire-annihilating vapours.", "The composition with which the 'Fire Annihilator' is charged is a mixture of dried ferrocyanide of potassium, sugar, and chlorate of potassa. It is set in action by a blow on a glass vessel containing oil of vitriol, which, being fractured, permits the acid to flow over the 'charge,' when the anti-combustion gas is liberated, and rushes forth with great impetuosity.", "Fire-damp.= See HYDROGEN (Light Carburetted).", "Fire-engine.= The common fire-engine is a compound forcing-pump, consisting of two 'forcing-pumps' placed on opposite sides of an 'air-vessel,' with which both communicate. The 'fulcrum' of the 'lever' by which both pumps are worked is placed midway between them; consequently they act alternately in charging the air-vessel. In order to obtain a very forcible jet it is necessary to prevent the escape of any portion of the contents of the air-vessel until the confined air is considerably compressed. The lever is connected with handrails on each side of the engine, and these are alternately raised and depressed by the workers. Engines worked by steam power are now common in London and most of our large towns.", "Fire-Extinguishing Powder (Feuerloschpulver)=, Bucher Leipzig. Nitre, 59 parts; sulphur, 36 parts; coal, 4 parts; iron oxide, 1 part. (Wittstein.)", "Fire, how to light a.= In a close stove the first thing is to empty the fireplace. Take out the larger cinders and half-burnt coal with your fingers, and lay them on one side for lighting the fire; then rake out all the ashes (this can be done with the lids on, then it will not make so much dust). Next take off all the lids, and sweep all the soot carefully out; once or twice a week the flue pipe must be taken off and cleared out, also the flues under the oven. The soot should be carried away at once, as it blows about. Then blacklead the stove; put in a few cinders, lay on them a piece of paper and a few sticks crossing each other; on these lay very lightly some pieces of half-burnt coal and a few cinders, leaving space for the draught.", "Do not fill the grate full; put the lids on, draw out the damper, light the fire, and shut the front door. An open fire is lighted in much the same way. There are no flues to clean out; but the chimney, as high as one can reach and behind the register door, should be cleared from soot daily.[309]", "[Footnote 309: 'Household Management, &c.,' by W. T. Tegetmeier.]", "Fire-proofing.= See INCOMBUSTIBILITY, &c.", "Fireworks.= See PYROTECHNY, and _below_.", "FIRES.= (In pyrotechny.) Coloured fires may be termed, not inaptly, the _chefs-d'[oe]uvre_ of the pyrotechnist's art, since on their excellence the attractions of most other varieties of fireworks depend. The following forms, under judicious management, yield fires of remarkable beauty.", "Blue Fire.= _Prep._ 1. From metallic antimony, 1 part; sulphur, 2 parts; nitre, 5 parts.", "2. From realgar, 2 parts; charcoal, 3 parts; chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; sulphur, 13 parts; nitrate of baryta, 77 parts.", "3. (Mr A. Bird.) Charcoal and orpiment, of each 1 part; black sulphuret of antimony, 16 parts; nitre, 48 parts; sulphur, 64 parts.", "4. (Fownes.) Tersulphuret of antimony, a part; sulphur, 2 parts; dry nitre, 6 parts. This is the composition used for the Bengal or blue signal light employed at sea.", "5. (Prof. Marchand.) Sulphur, sulphate of potassa, and ammonio-sulphate of copper, of each 15 parts; nitre, 27 parts; chlorate of potassa, 28 parts. For theatrical illuminations. This may be rendered either lighter or darker coloured by lessening or increasing the quantities of the sulphate of potassa and ammonio-sulphate of copper.", "6. (LIGHT BLUE--Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; calcined alum, 23 parts; chlorate of potassa, 61 parts.", "7. (DARK BLUE--Marchand.) Calcined alum and carbonate of copper, of each 12 parts; sulphur, 16 parts; chlorate of potassa, 60 parts.", "8. (Marsh.) Sulphate of copper, 7 parts; sulphur, 24 parts; chlorate of potassa, 69 parts.", "9. (Ruggieri.) Nitre, 2 parts; sulphur and zinc, of each 3 parts; gunpowder, 4 parts.", "10. From sulphur, 1 part; dried verdigris, 2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 9 parts.", "Fire, Crimson.= _Prep._ 1. (Marsh.) Chlorate of potassa, 4-1/4 parts; charcoal (alder or willow), 5-3/4 parts; sulphur, 22-1/2 parts; nitrate of strontia, 67-1/2 parts. For pots.", "2. (Marsh.) Charcoal, 4-1/4 parts; sulphuret of antimony, 5-1/2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 17-1/4 parts; sulphur, 18 parts; nitrate of strontia, 55 parts. For boxes and stars.", "3. (Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; chalk (dry), 23 parts; chlorate of potassa, 61 parts. Turns on the purple. See RED FIRE (_below_).", "Fire, Green.= _Prep._ 1. Nitrate of baryta, 77 parts; chlorate of potassa, 8 parts; fine charcoal, 3 parts; sulphur, 13 parts.", "2. From metallic arsenic, 2 parts; charcoal, 3 parts; chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; sulphur, 13 parts; nitrate of baryta, 77 parts. Very beautiful, particularly when burnt before a reflector.", "3. (Mr A. Bird.) Charcoal and black sulphuret of antimony, of each 2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; sulphur, 6 parts; nitrate of baryta, 80 parts.", "4. (Fownes.) Lampblack, 1 part; chlorate of potassa, 4 parts; sulphur, 6 parts; dry nitrate of baryta, 18 parts.", "5. (Marchand.) Boracic acid, 10 parts; sulphur, 17 parts; chlorate of potassa, 73 parts. Very beautiful.", "6. (Marchand.) Chlorate of potassa, 18 parts; sulphur, 22 parts; nitrate of baryta, 60 parts. For theatrical illuminations.", "7. (LIGHT GREEN--Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; carbonate of baryta, 24 parts; chlorate of potassa, 60 parts. Extremely delicate.", "8. (Marsh.) Charcoal and sulphuret of arsenic, of each 1-3/4 parts; sulphur, 10-1/2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 23-1/4 parts; nitrate of baryta, 62-1/2 parts. For pots or stars.", "Fire, Lilac.= _Prep._ 1. (Marsh.) Black oxide of copper, 6 parts; dry chalk, 20 parts; sulphur, 25 parts; chlorate of potassa, 49 parts. For pans.", "2. (Marsh.) From black oxide of copper, 3 parts; dried chalk, 22 parts; sulphur, 25 parts; chlorate of potassa, 50 parts. For stars.", "Fire, Orange.= See RED FIRE, No. 8 (_below_).", "Fire, Pink.= _Prep._ (Marchand.) Charcoal, 1 part; chalk and sulphur, of each 20 parts; chlorate of potassa, 27 parts; nitre, 32 parts. For theatrical illuminations. See RED FIRE, No. 10 (_below_).", "Fire, Purple.= _Prep._ 1. From lampblack, realgar, and nitre, of each 1 part; sulphur, 2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; fused nitrate of strontia, 16 parts.", "2. (Marsh.) Sulphuret of antimony, 2-3/4 parts; black oxide of copper, 10 parts; sulphur and nitrate of potassa, of each 22-3/4 parts; chlorate of potassa, 42 parts. For pans.", "3. (Marsh.) Sulphate of copper, 9-3/4 parts; sulphur, 13 parts; chlorate of potassa, 77-1/4 parts. For stars.", "4. From sulphur, 12 parts; black oxide of copper, 12 parts; chlorate of potassa, 30 parts. See CRIMSON FIRE, No. 3 (_above_), and RED FIRE, No. 9 (_below_).", "Fire, Red.= _Prep._ 1. From sulphur, sulphuret of antimony, and nitre, of each 1 part; dried nitrate of strontia, 5 parts.", "2. (Mr A. Bird.) Charcoal, 1 part; black sulphuret of antimony, 4 parts; chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; sulphur, 13 parts; dried nitrate of strontia, 40 parts.", "3. (Fownes.) Lampblack, 2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 8 parts; sulphur, 9 parts; dried nitrate of strontia, 32 parts.", "4. (Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; carbonate of strontia, 23 parts; chlorate of potassa, 61 parts.", "5. (Marchand.) Chlorate of potassa, 20 parts; sulphur, 24 parts; nitrate of strontia, 56 parts. For theatrical illuminations.", "6. (Marsh.) Coaldust, 2 parts; gunpowder, 6 parts; sulphur, 20 parts; dried nitrate of strontia, 72 parts.", "7. (Ruggieri.) Sulphuret of antimony, 4 parts; chlorate of potassa, 5 parts; sulphur, 13 parts; fused nitrate of strontia, 40 parts. A little charcoal or lampblack makes it burn quicker.", "8. (ORANGE RED--Marchand.) Sulphur, 14 parts; chalk, 34 parts; chlorate of potassa, 52 parts.", "9. (PURPLE RED--Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; chalk, 23 parts; chloride of potassa, 61 parts.", "10. (ROSE-RED--Marchand.) Sulphur, 16 parts; dried chloride of calcium, 23 parts; chlorate of potassa, 61 parts. See PINK FIRE.", "11. From charcoal, 2 parts; chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; sulphur, 13 parts; dried nitrate of strontia, 40 parts.", "Fire, Violet.= _Prep._ 1. From charcoal, 8 parts; sulphur, 10 parts; metallic copper, 15 parts; chlorate of potassa, 30 parts.", "2. (DARK VIOLET--Marchand.) Alum and carbonate of potassa, of each 12 parts; sulphur, 16 parts; chlorate of potassa, 60 parts.", "3. (PALE VIOLET--Marchand.) Sulphur, 14 parts; alum and carbonate of potassa, 16 parts; chlorate of potassa, 54 parts.", "Fire, White.= _Prep._ 1. From nitre, 60 parts; sulphur, 20 parts; black antimony, 10 parts; meal powder, 6 parts; powdered camphor, 4 parts. For either pans or stars.", "2. (Mr A. Bird.) White arsenic, 1 part; charcoal, 2 parts; black antimony, 16 parts; nitre, 48 parts; sulphur, 64 parts.", "3. (Marchand.) Charcoal, 2 parts; sulphur, 22 parts; nitre, 76 parts. For theatrical illuminations.", "4. (Marchand.) Gunpowder, 15 parts; sulphur, 21 parts; nitre, 64 parts. As the last.", "5. (Marsh.) Gunpowder, 12-1/2 parts; zinc filings, 18 parts; sulphur, 23 parts; nitre, 46-1/2 parts. For pans.", "6. (Marsh.) Zinc dust or filings, 15 parts; sulphur, 28 parts; nitre, 57 parts. For stars.", "7. (Ruggieri.) Sulphur, 13-1/4 parts; sulphuret of antimony, 17-1/4 parts; nitre, 48 parts.", "8. (Ruggieri.) From realgar, 2 parts; sulphur, 7 parts; nitre, 24 parts.", "9. (Ruggieri.) Charcoal, 1 part; sulphur, 24 parts; nitre, 75 parts.", "10. (Ruggieri.) Iron or zinc borings, 25 parts; gunpowder, 100 parts.", "Fire, Yellow.= _Prep._ 1. From sulphur, 16 parts; dried carbonate of soda, 23 parts; chlorate of potassa, 61 parts.", "2. (Marchand.) Gunpowder, 14 parts; sulphur, 16 parts; dried soda, 20 parts; nitre, 50 parts.", "3. (Marchand.) Charcoal, 1-1/2 parts; sulphur, 17-1/2 parts; dried soda, 20 parts; nitre, 61 parts.", "_Green-coloured Fires._[310]", "------+----------------------+-----------------+-------------------- No. | Potassium Chlorate, | Barium Nitrate, | Sulphur, per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | ------+----------------------+-----------------+-------------------- 1 | 36 | 40 | 24 2 | 29 | 48 | 23 3 | 24 | 53 | 23 4 | 21 | 57 | 22 5 | 18 | 60 | 22 6 | 16 | 62 | 22 7 | 14 | 64 | 22 8 | 13 | 66 | 21 9 | 12 | 67 | 21 10 | 11 | 68 | 21 11 | 10 | 69 | 21 12 | 9·5 | 69·5 | 21 13 | 9 | 70 | 21 14 | 8·5 | 70·5 | 21 15 | 8 | 71 | 21 ------+----------------------+-----------------+--------------------", "[Footnote 310: Kern ('Chemical News,' September 29th, 1876).]", "_Red-coloured Fires._", "----+-------------------+------------------+---------+-------------- No.|Potassium Chlorate,|Strontium Nitrate,|Sulphur, |Carbon Powder, | per cent. | per cent. |per cent.| per cent. ----+-------------------+------------------+---------+-------------- 1 | 40 | 39 | 18 | 3 2 | 32 | 46 | 19 | 2 3 | 27 | 51 | 20 | 2 4 | 23 | 55 | 20 | 2 5 | 20 | 58 | 20·5 | 1·5 6 | 18 | 60 | 21 | 1 7 | 16 | 61·6 | 21·2 | 1·2 8 | 15 | 63 | 21 | 1 9 | 13 | 64 | 22 | 1 10 | 12 | 65 | 22 | 1 11 | 11 | 66 | 22 | 1 12 | 10 | 67 | 22 | 1 13 | 10 | 67·25 | 22 | 0·75 14 | 9·25 | 68 | 22 | 0·75 15 | 9 | 68·35 | 22 | 0·65 ----+-------------------+------------------+---------+--------------", "_Violet-coloured Fires._", "----+-------------------+------------------+-------------------+--------- No.|Potassium Chlorate,|Calcium Carbonate,|Malachite powdered,|Sulphur, | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. |per cent. ----+-------------------+------------------+-------------------+--------- 1 | 52 | 29 | 4 | 15 2 | 52 | 28 | 5 | 15 3 | 52 | 26 | 7 | 15 4 | 52 | 24 | 9 | 15 5 | 52 | 23 | 10 | 15 6 | 52 | 21 | 13 | 15 7 | 51 | 20 | 14 | 15 8 | 51 | 18 | 16 | 15 9 | 51 | 16 | 18 | 15 10 | 51 | 15 | 19 | 15 11 | 51 | 13 | 21 | 15 12 | 51 | 11 | 23 | 15 13 | 51 | 10 | 24 | 15 14 | 51 | 8 | 26 | 15 15 | 51 | 6 | 28 | 15 ----+-------------------+------------------+-------------------+---------", "4. (Marsh.) Charcoal, 6 parts; sulphur, 19-1/2 parts. For pans. Very beautiful.", "In preparing coloured fires for fireworks according to the usual formulæ given in manuals of pyrotechny, it is often important to know the speed at which they burn; as in some cases, such as decorations and lances, they should burn slowly; whereas in others, such as wheels, stars for rockets, and Roman candles, they ought to burn quicker. The foregoing tables are so arranged that every formula with a higher number yields a slower burning mixture than one with a lower number. Thus No. 5 burns quicker than No. 6, and slower than No. 4.", "_Obs._ The ingredients in the above compounds are to be separately reduced to powder and sifted through lawn, after which they should be kept in well-corked wide-mouthed bottles until the time of mixing them for use. The chlorate of potassa, more especially, must be separately treated and cautiously handled, in order to prevent the possibility of explosion from friction whilst it is in contact with combustible matter. The requisite quantity of each of the ingredients being weighed out and placed on a clean sheet of white paper, the whole is to be thoroughly but carefully mixed together with a light hand, by means of a bone or wooden knife. The compound is next lightly packed into small cups or pans for illuminations, or into small pill-boxes for stars and trains, a little priming and quick-match being lastly attached to each. To ensure success the several ingredients must be dry and commercially pure; and though reduced to the state of a uniform powder, care must be taken that they are not absolutely 'dusty,' or too finely pulverised. The nitrate of strontia, alum, saltpetre, carbonate of soda, &c., before being weighed, require to be gently heated in an iron pot or pan until they fall to powder, and lose their hygrometric moisture, or water of crystallisation. To ensure the perfect admixture of the ingredients, the whole, after they have been stirred together on paper, as before directed, may be passed through a hair or perforated zinc or brass sieve. Further, as coloured fires rapidly deteriorate by keeping, and even sometimes inflame spontaneously, to prevent disappointment and accidents they should not be prepared long before they will be required for use, and should be stored in some situation in which their spontaneous combustion would be productive of no disastrous consequences.", "Of the above formulæ, those bearing the name of the late Mr Marsh, of Woolwich, more especially deserve the attention of the pyrotechnist. To guard against the danger sometimes arising from the spontaneous combustion of coloured fires containing sulphur and chlorate of potash, Mr Saunders recommends intimately mixing 120 grains of bicarbonate of potash with each pound of sulphur before using it in the manufacture of any composition into which chlorates enter. See FLAME, PYROTECHNY, &c.", "FISH.= _Syn._ PISCES, L. Fishes form the _fourth class_ of vertebrate animals (VERTEBRATA) in the Cuvierian arrangement of the animal kingdom, and in the variety of their genera and species are second only to the INSECTA, whilst in prolificness and number they probably exceed all other animated beings that reach a size equal to that of even the smallest member of their prodigious race. Besides their value to man as food, they furnish him with oil, isinglass, and various other articles of utility and luxury, and provide, either directly or indirectly, an inexhaustible supply of manure for the fertilisation of his fields. As food fish are undoubtedly wholesome and nutritious, although less so than the flesh of animals or the grains of the cereals. Of all the various substances used as aliments by man, fish are, however, the most liable to run into a state of putrefaction, and should therefore be only eaten when perfectly fresh or, if not recently taken, then only when their perfect preservation has been ensured by any of the ordinary methods employed for the purpose. Those that are the whitest and most flaky when cooked, as cod, flounders, haddock, hake, soles, turbot, whiting, &c., are the most easily digested; and those abounding in oily matter, as eels, herrings, mackerel, salmon, &c., are most nutritious, though the most likely to offend the stoma